I M£s aw ?•-- * •*;' " -^-v , ~\ - ' V • -^$> THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. ten 1777—1784. eighteen 1788 — 1797. twenty 1801 — 1810. twenty 1815 — 1817. twenty 1823 — 1824. twenty-one ' 1830 — 1842. twenty-two 1853 — 1860. twenty-five 1875 — 1889. ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XIX MUN to ODDFELLOWS Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 1911 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A. W. H. AMBROSIUS ARNOLD WILLEM HUBRECHT, LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D. Professor of Zoology, and Director of the Institute of Zoology in the University-^ Nemertina (in part). of Utrecht. Author of Nemertines. I A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. I Numbers, Partition of. See the biographical article : CAYLEY, ARTHUR. A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J JJematoda (in part); Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, i Nematomorpna; Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I- Nemertina (in part). A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f „ Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' Nicholas, Henry; College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- -j Northumberland, John Dudley, 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of duke of. England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. \ See the biographical article : GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. \ „ r Mutian; A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J »,„„„_.• . Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. US' 1 Myconius, Oswald. Nnnn|otnnicm an M80?1"0111 l I* A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D. See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \ A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINBLER, C.I.E. f W|eh,. General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ m A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f Nestorians (f» part); Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent) NestOHUS (in part); College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of | New Jerusalem Church; Mysore Educational Service. [ Nicholas of Basel. A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. f Mytholop; See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. Name (Local and Personal Names). A. LI. D. ARTHUR LLEWELLYN DAVIES (d. 1907). Trinity College, Cambridge; Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant -I Negligence. Reader in Common Law under the Council of Legal Education. A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). (" Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of-{ Municipium. Roman History, 133-70 B.C. l_ ( Nestor; Nidiflcation (in part); A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. ., . Vn^ . See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. tmgaie, fi lay. Nutcracker; Nuthatch; [ Oeydrome. A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. f President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of South African Studies ; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical I watal (in •hn.rf) practice in South Africa till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, ' and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. A. R. S. SIR ALEXANDER RUSSELL SIMPSON, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.). Emeritus Professor of Midwifery, Edinburgh University. Dean of the Faculty of -I Obstetrics. Medicine and Professor in the University, 1870-1905. A. S. E. ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTON, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.A.S. f Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, \ Nebula. Cambridge. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributions, appears in the final volume. v 1988 all] n VI A. S. P.-P. A. Ts. A. W. H.* A. W. Hu. B. S. R B. S. P. B. W.* C. F. M. B. C. H. Ha. C. H. W. J. C. K. S. C. M. C. Mi. C.PL C. R. B. C. S. S. D. B. Ma. D. F. T. D. G. H. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J Mysticism. Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. ALBERT THOMAS. Member of the French Chamber of Deputies. Contributor to Vol. xi. of theH Napoleon III. Cambridge Modern History. Author of Le second Empire, &c. I ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900 I Nonjurors. 'ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON. f Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National J Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives 1 of the English Saints ; &c. I -LORD BALCARRES, F.S.A., M.P. Trustee of National Portrait Gallery. Hon. Secretary of Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings; Vice-Chairman of National Trust. Junior Lord of the' Treasury, 1903-1905. M.P. for Chorley division of Lanes from 1895. Son and heir of the 26th earl of Crawford. Museums of Art.. SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., ASSOC.INST.C.E., M.INST.M.E. Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical " Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and its Products; Chemical Technology; &c. Naphtha. BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin). Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. BECKLES WILLSON. • Author of The Hudson's Bay Company ; The Romance of Canada ; &c. CHARES FREDERIC MOBERLY BELL. Managing Director of The Times. Correspondent in Egypt, 1865-1890. Author of Khedives and Pashas; From Pharaoh to Fellah; &c. •j Norway: Early History. Newfoundland. JJubar Pasha. Author of •) Nineveh. CARLTON HUNTLY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. r iis/.i.«i«., m ru Assistant Professor of History at Columbia University, New York City. Member J * las' m" IV° of the American Historical Association. [ (popes). REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., LITT.D. Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. Assyrian Deeds and Documents. CLEMENT KING SHORTER. r „ Editor of the Sphere. Author of Charlotte Bronte and her Circle; The Brontes :J * Life and Letters ; &c. [ Illustrated Papers. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. f Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik •< Nicaea, Council of. im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstlhums ; &c. [ CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902- 1903- CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES L. f Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Neustria. Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow J . of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. ] Nlkltin; Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. [ Norden, John. CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. r Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies J Mnclim Ihn of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action of] the Nervous System. |_ DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of J mr.,-,1,. _nli Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Selec-} rauscle lions from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. [_ DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis 1899 and • 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn D. H. D. M. W. D. N. P. D. Wr. E. A. F. E. B. T. E. F. S. E.G. E. Gr. E.He. E. H. M. Ed. M. E. N.-R. E. Pr. E. P. C. E. R. L. E. S. G. E. Wa. E. W. H.* F. E. B. F. G. M. B. F. G. P. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. {Napoleonic Campaigns: Naval Operations; Navarino, Battle of; Navy; Nelson; Nile, Battle of the. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I. E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart- ment of The Times, 1891-1899. Joint-editor of new volumes (loth edition) of the •{ Nihilism. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question; The Web of Empire; &c. DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super- I intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. T Nutrition. Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human I Physiology; &c. DANIEL WRIGHT, M.D. Translated the History of Nepaul, from the Parbatiya, with an " Introductory -| Nepal (in part). Sketch of the Country and People of Nepaul." L EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. ("„ See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A. \ Nobility; Normans. EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects, of Bell's " Cathedral '' Series. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. Oath. Member of n»llt,i,o,>*,, Joint-editor 1 lnkaesy. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. : Norton, Thomas; J Norway: Norwegian Literature; [ Novel. •'. Mycenae; Naucratis. Librarian of the Royal Geographical -j Nyasa. Neuri. Nascimento. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Society, London. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. EDWARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. EUSTACE NEVILLE-ROLFE, C.V.O. (1845-1908). -f Nanles Formerly H.M. Consul-General at Naples. Author of Naples in the 'Nineties; &c. \ ' EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. E. P. CATHCART, M.D. Grieve Lecturer in Chemical Physiology, University of Glasgow. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian Demonstrator of Com- parative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford. REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. Narses (King of Persia). | Nutrition (in part). Mussel (in part). Myzostomida. Oar. SIR EDWARD WALTER HAMILTON, G.C.B., K.C.V.O. (1847-1908). rv .. . n Joint Permanent Secretary to H.M. Treasury, 1902-1908. Author of National J "«»onal " Debt Conversion and Redemption. Conversions (in part). FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger" Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Coloration; &c. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on ' „ ... ,. -, lematooa (in part). r Muscuiar system- " -, . Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 Nerve; Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L Nervous System. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Senior Censor, Student, Tutor -i Numantia. and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford, 1891-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and J Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial | German Archaeological Institute. L F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f Nassarawa; See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Nigeria. F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. (" jjaDOieonic Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the~{ f,... World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign ; The Jena Campaign; &c. L *«••* F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. ("Natal (in part); Niger; Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Nile (in part). F. W. Ha. FREDERICK WILLIAM HASLUCK, M.A. r Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, Athens. Fellow of King's^ Mysia. College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901. [_ F. W. Mo. FREDERICK WALKER MOTT, F.R.S., M.D., F.R.C.P. f" Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London. Pathologist to the London County J Neuralgia; Neurasthenia; Asylums. Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution. Editor of Archives | Neuropathology. of Neurology. I G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. f Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. University of Oxford. . Fellow of Oriel College; Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. L G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S. [ Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales, Bangor, 1884-1896. 4 Number. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal Com- -\ New South Wales: History. mission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne. G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. \ Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- J w ,, . , 1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the j letnerianos. British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian Boundary Arbitrations. [ G. F. H.* GEORGE FRANCIS HILL, M.A. r Assistant in the Department of Coins, British Museum. Corresponding Member of I vumjsmatics the German and Austrian Archaeological Institutes. Author of Coins of Ancient"] Sicily ; Historical Greek Coins ; Historical Roman Coins ; &c. L G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r Rector of Sutton Sandy, Bedfordshire. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, Uni- J Nahum versity of Oxford. 1908-1909. Author of Short Introduction to Literature of the Old | Testament; &c. t G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. (Lond.). • f Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Neuroptera. their Structure and Life. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J. Northampton, Assize of. Society. [ G. K. G. GROVE KARL GILBERT, LL.D. r Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey. President of the American Geological Society, J wjaeara 1892-1893 and 1909-1910. Formerly Special Lecturer at Cornell, Columbia and 1 Johns Hopkins Universities. Author of Glaciers and Glaciation ; &c. L G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. r«-vi j._ rn, u - - Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old J HaDl? Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. ( Nawawl; Nosairis. H. A. G. HERBERT APPOLD GRUEBER, F.S.A. Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum. Treasurer of the Egypt Exploration I Fund. Vice-President of the Royal Numismatic Society. Author of Coins of the'] Numismatics (in part). Roman Republic ; &c. H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f National Debt Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, j Necker (in -barf) University of California. Author of History of the French Revolution ; Modern ] European History ; &c. H. M. T. HENRY MARTYN TAYLOR, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; formerly Tutor and Lecturer. Smith's ^ Newton, Sir Isaac. Prizeman, 1865. Editor of the Pitt Press Euclid. L H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. f Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Morth Sea; Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University, j Norwegian Sea. Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. L H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D. Director of British Rainfall Organization. Formerly President of the Royal Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St . Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. British Delegate to International Conference on the Exploration of the Sea at Christiania, 1901. Author of The Realm of Nature; The Clyde Sea Area; The English Lakes; The International Geography. Editor of British Rainfall. Ocean and Oceanography. H. St. HENRY STURT. M.A. { mj,,n— Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. r Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Murimuth* Nennius. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins ; Charlemagne. H. Wy. MAJOR-GENERAL HENRY WYLIE, C.S.I. f Officiating Agent to the Governor-General of India for Baluchistan, 1898-1900. •< Nepal (in part). Resident at Nepal, 1891-1900. I. H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. r Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J _. .. . ,. .. Oxford, 1901. Author of "Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthrop- 1 O»aoian (in part). ology," in Mansfield College Essays; &c. L L A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. (" Nachmanides; Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, I majara. Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- \ " " ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. {. "asi. J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. /»„„- u.,,, *-, c~ n^\ See the biographical article : CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER. \ H('er' V n fart>- J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. (Lond.). f Mncphoiiraiir- Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -{ rau!>l'ne *"*» The Geology of Building Stones. I Neocomian. J. A. L. R. JOHN ATHELSTAN LAURIE RILEY, M.A. J .., „ / . .% Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks ; &c. \ Nl istonans (™ Part>- J. A. P.* REV. JAMES .ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. f Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Editor < Numbers, BOOK of. of Book of Numbers in the " Polychrome " Bible; &c. L J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Nicholas (King of Monte- Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 neern) Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. [ J. F. -K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. r Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and_ Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. J Nunez de Arce. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L J. Hd. JOHN HOLLINGSHEAD (1827-1904). (* Founder of the Gaiety Theatre, London. Member of Theatrical Licensing Reform -| Music Halls. Committee, 1866 and 1892. Author of Gaiety Chronicles; &c. [ J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. [ Name: Gree* and &"*an Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Names; I Noricum. J. H. H. JOHN HENRY Mn>DLET9N, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). r Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director Mural TWoratinn fi« -hurt)- of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J " U6COra Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. f Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Neville (Family). Pedigree. I J. Holl. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lixx.D. (" Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge Uni- J Mannionn i versity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic \ *aP°'eon »• Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. 3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, Lrrr.D. Professor of English Literature in the New York Jewish Theological Seminary of I America. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corre- 1 Nethinim. spending Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. 3. J. Lr. JOSEPH JACKSON LISTER, M.A., F.R.S. f Mycetozoa. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. J. L. E. D. JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER. Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to •{ Observatory. Kepler; &c. I J. M. By. J. M. BRYDON. f Nfisflpid Architect of Chelsea Town Hall and Polytechnic, &c. \ w J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. fNaucrarv Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -! ^ , . N College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Neoplaionism (in part). J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. (" Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Nejef ; the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Babylonia, ] Nippur. 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I J. Si.* REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. I" Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), Antananarivo, Mada- J «___• ux gascar. Member de 1'Academie Malgache. Author of Madagascar and its People; ] nossl"De> Madagascar before the Conquest; A Madagascar Bibliography; &c. I J. S. Bl. REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. Assistant-editor of the o.th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of -< Nestorius (in part). the Encyclopaedia Biblica. [_ J.S.P. JOHN SMITH FLETT, DSc.F.G.S f Mylonite; Napoleonite; Petrographer to H.M. Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology ml M.-I.. Wani,.]in- cuon;*0. Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsbv 1 5C*' WePhellne-Syenite, Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Nephehmtes; Obsidian. J. S. K. JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star. Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical^ National Debt (in part). Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of I the Geographical Journal. J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. rNikolayev (in part); Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical i Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part); Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [Novgorod (in part). J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. fiviiiccoi c« A/, Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly) ?T~ Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in | Nautilus; The University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. [ Octopus. JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Pn.D. f M.-I,..,, /• .,-,,1 Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ a J. T. S.* J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -J Navigation Laws. College. J. W.* JAMES WARD, LL.D. f „ . See the biographical article: WARD, JAMES. >m- Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Naturalization. 1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict of Laws; Chapters on the Principles of International Law; part i. " Peace "; part ii. J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and I New South Wales: Geology; Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 "New Zealand: Geology, of Australia; &c. J. W. L. G. JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (~ Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J HaD;er John Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger ] of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. {. K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Mu.sic*! ,Box; Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the'} Na" Violin; Orchestra. . L Nay; Oboe (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Muscovite* Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j M . ,. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- 1 ne' logical Magazine. [ Niccolite. L. R. F. LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., LITT.D. f Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford University Lecturer in Classical J M f Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Corresponding Member 1 «»ysl*ry. of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Evolution of Religion ; &c. I L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI. r Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent I „ „.. in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, ] "aples, Kingdom Of. and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. L L. W. K. LEONARD WILLIAM KING, M.A., F.S.A. t King's College, Cambridge. Assistant in Department of Egyptian and Assyrian j Mjnnllr. T/.. TV,;.,... v Antiquities, British Museum; Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College and London 1 University. Author of The Seven Tablets of Creation ; &c. I M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. fltfohn- NorI. • i r *; of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 Morway* Physical Geography. Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. I R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De- limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c. R. C. T. SIR RICHARD CARNAC TEMPLE, BART., C.I.E. r Lieut.-Colonel. Formerly Chief Commissioner, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hon. -| Nicobar Islands. Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Joint-author of Andamanese Language; &c. [ R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L. f Newman, Francis William; See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \Newton, Sir C. T. R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MACNEILL, M.A. r Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's •< Murray Lord George Gazette, London. R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Muntjac; Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Musir Ox- Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer\ „ , . ' of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. I Mylodon. R. La. ROBERT LATOUCHE. Archivist of the department of Tarn et Garonne. Author of Histoire du comte du -j Normandy. Maine au X. et au XI. siecle. R. S. P. xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the -aAHae^-u- Nonean uonc- Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J "* en> Hans> 1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 Nikon. to 1706; &c. i *• R. S. B. SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL, F.R.S., LL.D. Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry, University of Cambridge. I ijei.uiar Thpnrv Director of the Cambridge Observatory and Fellow of King's College. Royal j neDUla neory. Astronomer of Ireland, 1874-1892. Author of The Story of the Heavens; &c. REGINALD STUART POOLE, LL.D. Jw,,mi.»..««. /•• ,\ See the biographical article : POOLE, REGINALD STUART. \ Numismatics (in part) . R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMANN TARR. f Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. Special Field Assistant of the -j New York (in part). U.S. Geological Survey. Author of Physical Geography of New York State. [_ S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. f Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Nabataeans (in part) ; Aramaic, London University, 1904—1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904— ] Nazarite (in part) 1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient [ Palestine; &c. St C. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. f Nicole See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, ist Earl of. \ S. H. V.* SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, J Naegeli. Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the University of 1 London. Author of Student's Text Book of Botany; &c. S. K. STEN KONOW, PH.D. I" Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier de 1'Academie J MundSs. Frangaise. Author of Stamavidhana Brahmana ; The Karpuramanjari ; Munda j and Dravidian. S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. f „__. - D, A See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ Neptu T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., LITT.D. f Nemorensis Lacus; Nepi; Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Nola; Nomentana, Via; Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the-| Nomentum; Nora; Norba; Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of Novara; Nuceria Alfaterna; the Roman Campagna. [ Nuoro T. A. C. TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O. f M Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, J New South Wales: 1886-1905. Author of Wealth and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account | Geography and Statistics, of Australia and New Zealand; &c. L T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. J Name: Law; Trinity College, Dublin. I Octroi. T. A. J. THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. f Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo- -j Negro (in part). logical Society. (. T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. r H.,,*--!-*,,. Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of „ . the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of\ North Sea Fisheries Conven- International Practice and Diplomacy ; &c. M. P. for Blackburn, 1910. [ tion. T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. / Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. \ NeO-Caesarea, Synod Of. T. H. THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., LITT.D. f „ , v r „ See the biographical article : HODGHN, THOMAS. \ NarS6S ^Roman General>- T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. \ Muscat; Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier. Surveys, India, 1892-) North- West Frontier Pro- 1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- 1 „«„.,„ Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. L T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. f Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. •{ Occam, William of. Author of Life of Luther ; &c. L T. W. R. D THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. r Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal -{ Nagarjuna; Nikaya. Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. L V. H. VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. f Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of the < Oboe (in part). Legion of Honour. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern), r Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of J Neuchatel. the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. L W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Murat- Nibeluneenlied- Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, < Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. L Nlcnol»S I (of Russia). W. Bl. WILLIAM BLAIN, C.B. (d. 1908). f National Debt: Conversions Principal Clerk and First Treasury Officer of Accounts, 1903-1908. \ (in part). W. Cr. WALTER CRANE. f Mnral narnratinn (in t>n.rt\ See the biographical article : CRANE, WALTER. \ M W. E. G. SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. f Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation,-^ Nile (in part). Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f •»„„.„, Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ f 4nce' London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). |_ Obscenity. W. F. R. WILLIAM FIDDIAN REDDAWAY, M.A. r Censor of Non-Collegiate Students, Cambridge. Fellow and Lecturer of King's J Norway: History College. Author of " Scandinavia," in Vol. xi. of the Cambridge Modern History. 1 W. F. W. WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., Pn.D. r Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association •! Negro (United States). and Secretary of the American Economical Association. Author of The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c. I W. G.* WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. I" H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal; 4 Natal: Geology. Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coal-mining; &c. W. H. Be. REV^ WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT^M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. i.J Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. I Nimrod; Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ; Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 Noah College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. I W. H. F. SLR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f «,__.,", See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. 1 W. H. P. WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. f „ Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Saturday Review, 1883-1894. Author of -j Mussel, Alfred de. Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; &c. W. J. H. WILLIAM JACOB HOLLAND, A.M., D.D., LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D. f Director of the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg. President of the American Association "j Museums of Science, of Museums, 1907-1909. Editor of Annals and Memoirs of Carnegie Museum. I W. L. F. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. f Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary -| Nullification. History of Reconstruction ; &c. W. L. G. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly J Wnw Rrnnci»i»k Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 'ew BrunswlcK Council (Canadian Series). L W. Mo. WILLIAM MORRIS. /M,,—I T\«- «*•«-/•• See the biographical article : MORRIS, WILLIAM. \ Mural Decoratl<"» (*» W. M. D. WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D. f Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical i North America. Geography. Author of Physical Geography ; &c. W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. f „ ... See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. \ munu0t W. 0. M. WILLIAM O'CONNOR MORRIS (d. 1904). Formerly Judge of County Courts, Ireland; and Professor of Law to the King's J nTnnnnll Daniel Inns, Dublin. Author of Great Commanders of Modern Times; Irish History] ' uallel' Ireland, 1798-1898; &c. L W. P. R. THE HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. f Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour, and Justice, New-^ New Zealand. Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand; &c. W. R. E. H. WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.C.S. f Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J Nitrnzlvpprin Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin- 1 Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c. L XIV iV . r\. I"l j W. R. M.* W. R. S. W. S. IVl. W. T. A. W. W. R.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). r Formerly Professor of Russian and other Slavonic Languages in the University of I »,,_*,.,. .Oxford. Author of Russia; Slavonic^ neslor- Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution Literature; &c. WILLIAM ROBERT MARTIN. Captain, R.N. Formerly Lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author of Treatise on Navigation and Nautical Astronomy; &c. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article : SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. WILLIAM SYMINGTON M'CORMICK, M.A., LL.D. Secretary to the Carnegie Trust of the Scottish Universities. Formerly Professor of English, University College, Dundee. Author of Lectures on Literature; &c. WALKER TALLMADGE ARNDT, M.A. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, D. PH. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. I t Navigation. f Nabataeans (in part) ; I Nazarite (in part) ; 1 Numeral; I Obadiah (in part). •I Occleve. | New York (in part). Nimes, Councils of. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Munich. Murad. Muratori. Mushroom. Mutilation. Mysore. Narcissus. Narcotics. Nashville. Nassau. Nebraska. Nevada. New Caledonia. Newcastle, Dukes of. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. New England. New Guinea. New Hampshire. New Hebrides. New Jersey. New Mexico. New Orleans. New York City. Ney. Niam-Niam. Nicaragua. Nice. Nickel. Nightingale, Florence. Nimes. Nitre-Compounds. Nitrogen. Norfolk, Earls and Dukes of. Norfolk. Northampton, Earls and Marquesses of. Northamptonshire. North Carolina. North Dakota. Northumberland, Earls and Dukes of. Northumberland. Norwich. Nottingham. Nottinghamshire. Novaya Zemlya. Nuremberg. Nursing. Nut. Oak. Oates, Titus. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XIX MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841- ), French politician, was born at Lumigny, in the department of Seine-et-Marne, on the 28th of February 1841. He entered the army, saw much service in Algeria (1862), and took part in the fighting around Metz in 1870. On the surrender of Metz, he was sent as a prisoner of war to Aix-la-Chapelle, whence he returned in time to assist at the capture of Paris from the Commune. A fervent Roman Catholic, he devoted himself to advocating a patriarch type of Christian Socialism. His elo- quence made him the most prominent member of the Cercles Catholiques d'Ouvriers, and his attacks on Republican social policy at last evoked a prohibition from the minister of war. He thereupon resigned his commission (Nov. 1875), and in the following February stood as Royalist and Catholic candidate for Pontivy. The influence of the Church was exerted to secure his election, and the pope during its progress sent him the order of St Gregory. He was returned, but the election was declared invalid. He was re-elected, however, in the following August, and for many years was the most conspicuous leader of the anti-Republican party. " We form," he said on one occasion, '' the irreconcilable Counter-Revolution." As far back as 1878 he had declared himself opposed to universal suffrage, a declaration that lost him his seat from 1879 to 1881. He spoke strongly against the expulsion of the French princes, and it was chiefly through his influence that the support of the Royalist party was given to General Boulanger. But as a faithful Catholic he obeyed the encyclical of 1892, and declared his readiness to rally to a Republican government, provided that it respected religion. In the following January he received from the pope a letter commending his action, and encouraging him in his social reforms. He was defeated at the general election of that year, but in 1894 was returned for Finistere (Morlaix). In 1897 he succeeded Jules Simon as a member of the French Academy. This honour he owed to the purity of style and remarkable eloquence of his speeches, which, with a few pamphlets, form the bulk of his published work. In Ma voca- tion sociale (1908) he wrote an explanation and justification of his career. MUN, THOMAS (1571-1641), English writer on economics, was the third son of John Mun, mercer, of London. He began by engaging in Mediterranean trade, and afterwards settled down in London, amassing a large fortune. He was a member of the committee of the East India Company and of the standing commission on trade appointed in 1622. In 1621 Mun published A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies. But it is by his England's Treasure by Forraign Trade that he is nx. i remembered in his history of economics. Although written possibly about 1630, it was not given to the public until 1664, when it was " published for the Common good by his son John," and dedicated to Thomas, earl of Southampton, lord high treasurer. In it we find for the first time a clear statement of the theory of the balance of trade. MUNCHAUSEN, BARON. This name is famous in literary history on account of the amusingly mendacious stories known as the Adventures of Baron Munchausen. In 1785 a little shilling book of 49 pages was published in London (as we know from the Critical Review for December 1785), called Baron Munchausen' s Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia. No copy is known to exist, but a second edition (apparently identical) was printed at Oxford early in 1786. The publisher of both these editions was a certain Smith, and he then sold it to another bookseller named Kearsley, who brought out in 1786 an enlarged edition (the additions to which were stated in the 7th edition not to be by the original author), with illustra- tions under the title of Gulliver Reviv'd: the Singular Travels, Campaigns, Voyages, and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnik- houson, commonly pronounced Munchaitsen; as he relates them over a bottle when surrounded by his friends. Four editions rapidly succeeded, and a free German translation by the poet Gottfried August Burger, from the fifth edition, was printed at Gottingen in 1786. The seventh English edition (1793), which is the usual text, has the moral sub-title, Or the Vice of Lying properly exposed, and had further new additions. In 1 792 a Sequel appeared, dedicated to James Bruce, the African traveller, whose Travels to Discover the Nile (1790) had led to incredulity and ridicule. As time went on Munchausen increased in popu- larity and was translated into many languages. Continuations were published, and new illustrations provided (e.g. by T. Rowlandson, 1809; A. Crowquill, 1859; A. Cruikshank, 1869; the French artist Richard, 1878; Gustave Dore, 1862; W. Strang and J. B. Clark, 1895). The theme of Baron Munchausen, the " drawer of the long-bow " par excellence, has become part of the common stock of the world's story-telling. The original author was at first unknown, and until 1824 he was generally identified with Burger, who made the .German translation of 1786. But Burger's biographer, Karl von Rein- hard, in the Berlin Gesellschafter of November 1824, set the matter at rest by stating that the real author was Rudolf Erich Raspe (q.v.). Raspe had apparently become acquainted at Gottingen with Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von Miinchhausen, of Bodenwerder in Hanover. This Freiherr von Miinchhausen (1720-1797) had been in the Russian service and MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN— MUNDAS served against the Turks, and on retiring in 1760 he lived on his estates at Bodenwerder and used to amuse himself and his friends, and puzzle the quidnuncs and the dull-witted, by relating extraordinary instances of his prowess as soldier and sportsman. His stories became a byword among his circle, and Raspe, when hard up f^r a living in London, utilized the suggestion for his little brochure. But his narrative owed much also to such sources, known to Raspe, as Heinrich Bebel's Facetiae bebelianae (1508), J. P. Lange's Ddiciae academicae (1665), a section of which is called Mendacia ridicula, Castiglione's Cortcgiano (1528), the Travels of the Finkenritter, attributed to Lorenz von Lauterbach in the i6th century, and other works of this sort. Raspe can only be held responsible for the nucleus of the book; the additions were made by book- sellers' hacks, from such sources as Lucian's Vera historia, or the Voyages imaginaires (1787), while suggestions were taken from Baron de Toll's Memoirs (Eng. Irans. 1785), the conlem- porary aeronaulical feats of Montgolfier and Blanchard, and any topical " sensations " of the moment, such as Bruce's explora- tions in Africa. Munchausen is thus a medley, as we have it, a classical instance of the fanlastical mendacious literary genre. See the introduction by T. Seccombe to Lawrence and Bullen's edition of 1895. Adolf Ellisen, whose father visited Freiherr von Mtinchhausen in 1795 and found him very uncommunicative, brought out a German edition in 1849, with a valuable essay on pseudology in general. There is useful material in Carl Muller-Fraureuth's Die deutschenLugendichtungenaufMunchkausen(i88i)andinGriesbacYi's edition of Burger's translation (1890). MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, ELIGIUS FRANZ JOSEPH, FREIHERR VON (1806-1871), Austrian poet and dramatist (who wrote under the pseudonym " Friedrich Halm >;), was born al Cracow on Ihe 2nd of April 1806, the son of a districl judge. Educaled al firsl al a private school in Vienna, he afterwards altended lectures al Ihe university, and in 1826, at the early age of twenty, married and entered Ihe governmenl service. In 1840 he became Regierungsral, in 1845 Hofrat and custodian of the royal library, in 1861 life member of the Austrian Herren- haus (upper chamber), and from 1869 to 1871 was inlendanl of the two court Iheatres in Vienna. He died at Hulteldorf near Vienna on the 2 2nd of May 1871. Miinch-Bellinghausen's dramas, among them notably Griseldis (1835; publ. 1837; nth ed., 1896), Der Adept (1836; publ. 1838), Camoens (1838), Der Sohn der WUdnis (1842; loth ed., 1896), and Der Fechter von Ravenna (1854; publ. 1857; 6lh ed., 1894), are dislinguished by elegance of language, melodious versification and clever construc- tion, and were for a lime exceedingly popular. His poems, Gedichle, were published in Stuttgart, 1850 (new ed., Vienna. 1877). His works, Santliche Werke, were published in eight volumes (1856-1864), to which four posthumous volumes were added in 1872. Ausgewdhlte Werke, ed. by A. Schlossar, 4 vols. (1904). See F. Pachler, Jugend und Lehrjahre des Dichters F. Halm (1877); J. Simiani, Gedenkblatter an F. Halm (1873). Halm's correspondence with Enk von der Burg has been published by R. Schachinger (1890). MUNCIE, a city and the county-seal of Delaware counly, Indiana, U.S.A., on Ihe West Fork of Ihe While river, about 57 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880), 5210; (1800), 11,345; (1900) 20,942, of whom 1235 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 24,005. It is served by the Cenlral Indiana, Ihe Chicago, Cincinnali & Louisville, Ihe Cleveland, Cincinnali, Chicago & Si Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, Ihe Forl Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Lake Erie & Western railways, and by Ihe Indiana Union Traction, the Dayton & Muncie Traction, and the Muncie & Portland Traction (eleclric inler-urban) railways. The cily is buill on level ground (allitude 950 ft.), and has an altractive residential section. It is one of the principal manufacturing centres in Indiana, owing largely lo ils silualion in Ihe natural gas belt. In 1900 and in 1905 it was the largest producer of glass and glassware in Ihe Uniled States, the value of its product in 1905 being $2,344,462. Muncie (named after the Munsee Indians, one of the Ihree principal divisions of Ihe Dela wares) was settled about 1833 and was chartered as a city in 1865. MUNDAS. The Munda (Munda) family is the least numerous of the linguistic families of India. It comprises several dialects spoken in the two Chota Nagpur plateaux, the adjoining districls of Madras and Ihe Central Provinces, and in the Mahadeo hills. The number of speakers of Ihe various dialects, according to the census of 1901, are as follow: Santali, 1,795,113; Mundari, 460,744; Bhumij, 111,304; Birhar, 526; Koda, 23,873; Ho, 371,860; Tun, 3880; Asuri, 4894; Korwa, 16,442; Korku, 87,675; Kharia, 82,506; Juang, 10,853; Savara, 157,136; Gadaba, 37,230; total, 3,164,036. Santali, Mundari, Bhumij, Birhar, Koda, Ho, Tun, Asuri and Korwa are only siighlly differing forms of one and Ihe same language, which can be called Kherwari, a name borrowed from Santali Iradition. Kherwari is the principal Munda language, and quite 88% of all Ihe speakers of Munda longues belong lo it. The Korwa dialect, spoken in the western part of Chota Nagpur, connects Kherwari with the remaining Munda languages. Of Ihese il is mosl closely relaled lo the Kurku language of the Mahadeo hills in Ihe Cenlral Provinces. Kurku, in ils lurn, in important poinls agrees with Kharia and Juang, and Kharia leads over to Savara and Gadaba. The Iwo lasl-menlioned forms of speech, which are spoken in the north-easl of Ihe Madras Presidency, have been much influenced by Dravidian languages. The Munda dialecls are nol in sole possession of Ihe lerrilory where Ihey are spoken. They are, as a rule, only found in Ihe hills and jungles, while Ihe plains and valleys are inhabiled by people speaking some Aryan language. When brought into close contacl with Aryan tongues the Munda forms of speech are apt to give way, and in the course of time they have been partly superseded by Aryan dialecls. There are accordingly some Aryanized Iribes in norlhern India who have formerly belonged lo Ihe Munda slock. Such are Ihe Cheros of Behar and Chota Nagpur, the Kherwars, who are found in the same localities, in Mirzapur and elsewhere, the Savaras, who formerly extended as far north as Shahabad, and others. It seems possible lo Irace an old Munda element in some Tibeto-Burman dialecls spoken in Ihe Himalayas from Bashahr easlwards. By race the Mundas are Dravidians, and their language was likewise long considered as a member of Ihe Dravidian family. Max Muller was the first to dislinguish the two families. He also coined the name Munda for the smaller of them, which has later on often been spoken of under other denominations, such as Kolarian and Kherwarian. The Dravidian race is generally considered as the aboriginal population of soulhern India. The Mundas, who do nol appear lo have extended much farther towards the south than at presenl, must have mixed with the Dravidians from very early times. The so-called Nahali dialed of Ihe Mahadeo hills seems lo have been originally a Munda form of speech which has come under Dravidian influ- ence, and finally passed under Ihe spell of Aryan longues. The same is perhaps the case with the numerous dialects spoken by Ihe Bhils. Al all evenls, Munda languages have apparently been spoken over a wide area in central and north India. They were Ihen early superseded by Dravidian and Aryan dialecls, and al Ihe present day only scanty remnanls are found in the hills and jungles of Bengal and the Cenlral Provinces. Though Ihe Munda family is not connected wilh any olher languages in India proper, it does not form an isolaled group. It belongs to a widely spread family, which extends from India in the west to Easter Island in the easlern Pacific in Ihe easl. In Ihe first place, we find a connected language spoken by the Khasis of the Khasi hills in Assam. Then follow the Mon- Khmer languages of Farther India, Ihe dialecls spoken by Ihe aboriginal inhabilants of the Malay Peninsula, the Nancowry of Ihe Nicobars, and, finally, Ihe numerous dialecls of Auslro- nesia, viz. Indonesic, Melanesic, Polynesic, and so on. Among Ihe various members of Ihis vast group the Munda languages are most closely related to the Mon-Khmer family of Farther India. Kurku, Kharia, Juang, Savara and Gadaba are more closely related lo lhal family lhan is Kherwari, the principal Munda form of speech. We do not know if the Mundas enlered India from wilhoul. MUNDAY If so, they can only have immigrated from the east. At all events they must have been settled in India from a very early period. The Sabaras, the ancestors of the Savaras, are already mentioned in old Vedic literature. The Munda languages seem to have been influenced by Dravidian and Aryan forms of speech. In most characteristics, however, they differ widely from the neighbouring tongues. The Munda languages abound in vowels, and also possess a richly developed system of consonants. Like the Dravidian languages, they avoid beginning a word with more than one consonant. While those latter forms of speech shrink from pronouncing a short conso- nant at the end of words, the Mundas have the opposite tendency, viz. to shorten such sounds still more. The usual stopped consonants — viz. k, c (i.e. English ch), t and p — are formed by stopping the current of breath at different points in the mouth, and then letting it pass out with a kind of explosion. In the Munda language this operation can be abruptly checked half-way, so that the breath does not touch the organs of speech in passing out. The result is a sound that makes an abrupt impression on the ear, and has been described as an abrupt tone. Such sounds are common in the Munda languages. They are usually written k', c', t' and p'. Similar sounds are also found in the Mon-Khmer languages and in Indo-Chinese. The vowels of consecutive syllables to a certain extent approach each other in sound. Thus in Kherwari the open sounds a (nearly English a in all) and a (the a in care) agree with each other and not with the corresponding close sounds o (the o in pole) and e (the e in pen). The Santali passive suffix ok' accordingly becomes dk' after a or d ; compare sdn-dk', go, but dal-ok', to be struck. Words are formed from monosyllabic bases by means of various additions, suffixes (such as are added after the base), prefixes (which Precede the base) and infixes (which are inserted into the base itself), uffixes play a great r61e in the inflexion of words, while prefixes and infixes are of greater importance as formative additions. Compare Kurku k-on, Savara on, son ; Kharia ro-mong, Kherwari mu, nose ; Santali bar, to fear; bo-to-r, fear; dal, to strike; da-pa-l, to strike each other. The various classes of words are not clearly distinguished. The same base can often be used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. The words simply denote some being, object, quality, action or the like, but they do not tell us how they are conceived. Inflexion is effected in the usual agglutinative way by means of additions which are " glued " or joined to the unchanged base. In many respects, however, Munda inflexion has struck out peculiar lines. Thus there is no grammatical distinction of gender. Nouns can be divided into two classes, viz. those that denote animate beings and those that denote inanimate objects respectively. There are three numbers — the singular, the dual and the plural. On the other hand, there are no real cases, at least in the most typical Munda, languages. The direct and the indirect object are indicated by means of certain additions to the verb. Certain relations in time and space, however, are indicated by means of suffixes, which have probably from the beginning been separate words with a definite meaning. The genitive, which can be considered as an adjective preceding the governing word, is often derived from such forms denoting locality. Compare Santali hdr-rd, in a man; Mr-ran, of a man. Higher numbers are counted in twenties, and not in tens as in the Dravidian languages. The pronouns abound in different forms. Thus there are double sets of the dual and the plural of the pronoun of the first person, one including and the other excluding the person addressed. The Rev. A. Nottrott aptly illustrates the importance of this distinction by remarking how it is necessary to use the exclusive form if telling the servant that " we shall dine at seven." Otherwise the speaker will invite the servant to partake of the meal. In addition to the usual personal pronouns there are also short forms, used as suffixes and infixes, which denote a direct object, an indirect object, or a genitive. There is a corresponding richness in the case of demonstrative pronouns. Thus the pronoun " that " in Santali has different forms to denote a living being, an inanimate object, something seen, some- thing heard, and so on. On the other hand, there is no relative pronoun, the want being supplied by the use of indefinite forms of the verbal bases, which can in this connexion be called relative participles. The most characteristic feature of Munda grammar is the verb, especially in Kherwari. Every independent word can perform the function of a verb, and every verbal form can, in its turn, be used as a noun or an adjective. The bases of the different tenses can there- fore be described as indifferent words which can be used as a noun, as an adjective, and as a verb, but which are in reality none of them. Each denotes simply the root meaning as modified by time. Thus in Santali the base ddl-ket', struck, which is formed from the base dal, by adding the suffix kef of the active past, can be used as a noun (compare dal-ket'-ko, strikers, those that struck), as an adjective (compare dal-ket'-hdr, struck man, the man that struck), and as a verb. In the last case it is necessary to add an a if the action really takes place; thus, dal-kef-a, somebody struck. It has already been remarked that the cases of the direct and indirect object are indicated by adding forms of the personal pronouns to the verb. Such pronominal affixes are inserted before the assertive particle a. Thus the affix denoting a direct object of the third person singular is e, and by inserting it in dal-kef-a we arrive at a form dal-ked-e-a, somebody struck him. Similar affixes can be added to denote that the object or subject of an action belongs to somebody. Thus Santali hap&n-in-e dal-ket'-tako-tin-a, son-my-he struck-theirs-mine, my son who belongs to me struck theirs. In a sentence such as har kord-e dal-ked-e-a, man boy-he struck- him, the man struck the boy, the Santals first put together the ideas man, boy, and a striking in the past. Then the e tells us that the striking affects the boy, and finally the -a indicates that the whole action really takes place. It will be seen that a single verbal form in this way often corresponds to a whole sentence or a series of sen- tences in other languages. If we add that the most developed Munda languages possess different bases for the active, the middle and the passive, that there are different causal, intensive and recipro- cal bases, which are conjugated throughout, and that the person of the subject is often indicated in the verb, it will be understood that Munda conjugation presents a somewhat bewildering aspect. It is, however, quite regular throughout, and once the mind becomes accustomed to these peculiarities, they do not present any difficulty to the understanding. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Max Muller, Letter to Chevalier Bunsen on the Classification of the Turanian Languages. Reprint from Chr. K. J. Bunsen, Christianity and Mankind, vol. iii. (London, 1854), especially pp. 175 and sqq.; Friedrich Muller, Grundriss der Sprach- vnssenschaft, vol. iii. part i. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and sqq., vol. iv. part i. (Wien, 1888), p. 229; Sten Konow, Munda and Dravidian Languages " in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, iv. i and teq. (Calcutta, 1906). (S. K.) MUNDAY (or MONDAY), ANTHONY (c. 1553-1633), English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, son of Christopher Monday, a London draper, was born in 1553-1554. He had already appeared on the stage when in 1576 he bound himself apprentice for eight years to John Allde, the stationer, an engagement from which he was speedily released, for in 1578 he was in Rome. In the opening b'nes of his English Romayne Lyfe (1582) he avers that in going abroad he was actuated solely by a desire to see strange countries and to learn foreign languages; but he must be regarded, if not as a spy sent to report on the English Jesuit College in Rome, as a journalist who meant to make literary capital out of the designs of the English Catholics resident in France and Italy. He says that he and his companion, Thomas Nowell, were robbed of all they possessed on the road from Boulogne to Amiens, where they were kindly received by an English priest, who entrusted them with letters to be delivered in Reims. These they handed over to the English ambassador in Paris, where under a false name, as the son of a well-known English Catholic, Munday gained recommendations which secured his reception at the English College in Rome. He was treated with special kindness by the rector, Dr Morris, for the sake of his supposed father. He gives a detailed account of the routine of the place, of the dispute between the English and Welsh students, of the carnival at Rome, and finally of the martyrdom of Richard Atkins (? 1 559-1 581). He returned to England in 1 578-1 579, and became an actor again, being a member of the Earl of Oxford's company between 1579 and 1584. In a Catholic tract entitled A True Reporte of the death of M. Campion (1581), Munday is accused of having deceived his master Allde, a charge which he refuted by publishing Allde's signed declaration to the con- trary, and he is also said to have been hissed off the stage. He was one of the chief witnesses against Edmund Campion and his associates, and wrote about this time five anti-popish pamphlets, among them the savage and bigoted tract entitled A Discoverie of Edmund Campion and his Confederates whereto is added the execution of Edmund Campion, Raphe Sherwin, and Alexander Brian, the first part of which was read aloud from the scaffold at Campion's death in December 1581. His political services against the Catholics were rewarded in 1584 by the post of messenger to her Majesty's chamber, and from this time he seems to have ceased to appear on the stage. In 1 598-1 599, when he travelled with the earl of Pembroke's men in the Low Countries, it was in the capacity of playwright to furbish up old plays. He devoted himself to writing for the booksellers and the theatres, compiling religious works, translating Amadis de Gaule and other French romances, and putting words to popular airs. He was the chief pageant-writer for the City from 1605 M UNDELL A— M UNDT to 1616, and it is likely that he supplied most of the pageants between 1592 and 1605, of which no authentic record has been kept. It is by these entertainments of his, which rivalled in success those of Ben Jonson and Middleton, that he won his greatest fame; but of all the achievements of his versatile talent the only one that was noted in his epitaph in St Stephens, Coleman Street, London, where he was buried on the loth of August 1633, was his enlarged edition (1618) of Stow's Survey of London. In some of his pageants he signs himself " citizen and draper of London," and in his later years he is said to have followed his father's trade. Of the eighteen plays between the dates of 1584 and 1602 which are assigned to Munday in collaboration with Henry Chettle, Michael Dray ton, Thomas Dekker and other dramatists, only four are extant. John a Kent and John a Cumber, dated 1595, is supposed to be the same as Wiseman of West Chester, produced by the Admiral's men at the Rae Theatre on the 2nd of December 1 594. A ballad of British Sidanen, on which it may have been founded, was entered at Stationers' Ha'.l in 1579. The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon, afterwards called Re-bin Hood of merrie Sherwodde (acted in February !599) was followed in the same month by a second part, The Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon (printed 1601), in which he collaborated with Henry Chettle. Munday also had a share with Michael Dray- ton, Robert Wilson and Richard Hathway in the First Part of the history of the life of Sir John Oldcastle (acted 1599), which was printed in 1600, with the name of William Shakespeare, which was speedily withdrawn, on the title page. William Webbe (Discourse of English Poetrie, 1586) praised him for his pastorals, of which there remains only the title, Sweet Sobs and Amorous Complaints of Shep- herds and Nymphs; and Francis Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) gives him among dramatic writers the exaggerated praise of being " our best plotter." Ben Jonson ridiculed him in The Case is Altered as Antonio Balladino, pageant poet. Munday's works usuaUy appeared under his own name, but he sometimes used the pseudonym of " Lazarus Piot." A. H. Bullen identifies him with the Shepherd Tony " who contributed " Beauty sat bathing by a spring " and six other lyrics to England's Helicon (ed. Bullen, 1899, p. 15). The completest account of Anthony Munday is T. Seccombe's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. A life and bibliography are prefixed to the Shakespeare Society s reprint of John a Kent and John a Cumber (ed. J. P. Collier, 1851). His two " Robin Hood " plays were edited by J. P. Collier in Old Plays (1828), and his English Romayne Lyfe was printed in the Harleian Miscellany, vii. 136 seq. (ed. Park, 1811). For an account of his city pageants see F. W. Fairholt, Lord Mayor's Pageants (Percy Soc., No. 38, 1843). MUNDELLA, ANTHONY JOHN (1825-1897), English educa- tional and industrial reformer, of Italian extraction, was born at Leicester in 1825. After a few years spent at an elementary school, he was apprenticed to a hosier at the age of eleven; He afterwards became successful in business in Nottingham, filled several civic offices, and was known for his philanthropy. He was sheriff of Nottingham in 1853, and in 1859 organized the first courts of arbitration for the settlement of disputes between masters and men. In November 1868 he was returned to parliament for Sheffield as an advanced Liberal. He represented that constituency until November 1885, when he was returned for the Brightside division of Sheffield, which he continued to represent until his death. In the Gladstone ministry of 1880 Mundella was vice-president of the council, and shortly after- wards was nominated fourth charity commissioner for England and Wales. In February 1886 he was appointed president of the board of trade, with a seat in the cabinet, and was sworn a member of the privy council. In August 1892, when the Liberals again came into power, Mundella was again appointed president of the board of trade, and he continued in this position until 1894, when he resigned office. His resignation was brought about by his connexion with a financial company which went into liquidation in circumstances calling for the official intervention of the board of trade. However innocent his own connexion with the company was, it involved him in unpleasant public discussion, and his position became untenable. Having made a close study of the educational systems of Germany and Switzerland, Mundella was an early advocate of compulsory education in England. He rendered valuable service in con- nexion with the Elementary Education Act of 1870, and the educational code of 1882, which became known as the " Mundella Code," marked a new departure in the regulation of public elementary schools and the conditions of the Government grants. To his initiative was chiefly due the Factory Act of 1875, which established a ten-hours day for women and children in textile factories; and the Conspiracy Act, which removed certain restrictions on trade unions. It was he also who established the labour department of the board of trade and founded the Labour Gazette. He introduced and passed bills for the better protection of women and children in brickyards and for the limitation of their labours in factories; and he effected substantial improvements in the Mines Regula- tion Bill, and was the author of much other useful legislation. In recognition of his efforts, a marble bust of himself, by Boehm, subscribed for by 80,000 factory workers, chiefly women and children, was presented to Mrs Mundella. He died in London on the 2ist of July 1897. MUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758-1832), English actor, was the son of a London poulterer, and ran away from home to join a strolling company. He had a long provincial experience as actor and manager. His first London appearance was in 1790 at Covent Garden, where he practically remained until 1811, becoming the leading comedian of his day. In 1813 he was at Drury Lane. He retired in 1824, and died on the 6th of February 1832. MUNDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Fulda and the Werra, 21 m. N.E. of Cassel by rail. Pop. (1905), 10,755. It is an ancient place, municipal rights having been granted to it in 1 247. A few ruins of its former walls still survive. The large Lutheran church of St Blasius (i4th-i5th centuries) contains the sarcophagus of Duke Eric of Brunswick-Calenberg (d. 1540). The 13th-century Church of St Aegidius was injured in the siege of 1625-26 but was subsequently restored. There is a new Roman Catholic church (1895). The town hall (1619), and the ducal castle, built by Duke Eric II. about 1570, and rebuilt in 1898, are the principal secular buildings. In the latter is the municipal museum. There are various small industries and a trade in timber. Miinden,often called " Hanno- versch-Munden " (i.e. Hanoverian MUnden), to distinguish it from Prussian Minden, was founded by the landgraves of Thuringia, and passed in 1247 to the house of Brunswick. It was for a time the residence of the dukes of Brunswick-Liineburg. In 1626 it was destroyed by Tilly. See Willigerod, Geschichte von Miinden (Gottingen, 1808); and Henze, Fiihrer durch Miinden und Umgegend (Munden, 1900). MUNDRUCUS, a tribe of South American Indians, one of the most powerful tribes on the Amazon. In 1788 they completely defeated their ancient enemies the Murasi After 1803 they lived at peace with the Brazilians, and many are civilized. MUNDT, THEODOR (1808-1861), German author, was born at Potsdam on the igth of September 1808. Having studied philology and philosophy at Berlin, he settled in 1832 at Leipzig, as a journalist, and was subjected to a rigorous police supervision. In 1839 he married Klara Mtiller (1814-1873), who under the name of Luise Miihlbach became a popular novelist, and he removed in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of entering upon an academical career was for a time thwarted by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however, he was permitted to establish himself as privatdocent. In 1848 he was appointed professor of literature and history in Breslau, and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Berlin; there he died on the 3oth of November 1861. Mundt wrote extensively on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence in his time. Prominent among his works are Die Kunst der deutschen Prosa (1837); Geschichte der Liter atur der Gegerrwart (1840); Aesthetik; die Idee der Schonheit und des Kunstwerks im Lichte unserer Zeit (1845, new ed. 1868); Die Gotterwelt der alien Vdlker (1846, new ed. 1854). He also wrote several historical novels; Thomas Milnzer (1841); Mendoza, der Voter der Schelmen (1847) and Die Matadore (1850). But perhaps Mundt's chief title to fame was his part in the emancipation of women, a theme which he elaborated in his Madonna, Unter- haltungen mil einer Heiligen (1835). MUNICH MUNICH (Ger. Miinchen), a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of Bavaria, and the third largest town in the German Empire. It is situated on an elevated plain, on the river Isar, 25 m. N. of the foot-hills of the Alps, about midway between Strassburg and Vienna. Owing to its lofty site (1700 ft. above the sea) and the proximity of the Alps, the climate is changeable, and its mean annual temperature, 49° to 50° F., is little higher than that of many places much farther to the north. The annual rainfall is nearly 30 in. Munich lies at the centre of an important network of railways connecting it directly with Strassburg (for Paris), Cologne, Leipzig, Berlin, Rosenheim (for Vienna) and Innsbruck (for Italy via the Brenner pass), which converge in a central station. Munich is divided into twenty-four municipal districts, nine- teen of which, including the old town, lie on the left bank of the Isar, while the suburban districts of Au, Haidhausen, Giesing, Bogenhausen and Ramersdorf are on the opposite bank. The old town, containing many narrow and irregular streets, forms a semicircle with its diameter towards the river, while round its periphery has sprung up the greater part of modern Munich, including the handsome Maximilian and Ludwig districts. The walls with which Munich was formerly surrounded have been pulled down, but some of the gates have been left. The most interesting is the Isartor and the Karlstor, restored in 1835 and adorned with frescoes. The Siegestor (or gate of victory) is a modern imitation of the arch of Constantine at Rome, while the stately Propylaea, built in 1854-1862, is a reproduction of the gates of the Athenian Acropolis. Munich owes its architectural magnificence largely to Louis I. of Bavaria, who ascended the throne in 1825, and his successors; while its collections of art entitle it to rank with Dresden and Berlin. Most of the modern buildings have been erected after celebrated prototypes of other countries and eras, so that, as has been said by Moriz Carriere, a walk through Munich affords a picture of the architecture and art of two thousand years. In carrying out his plans Louis I. was seconded by the architect Leo von Klenze, while the external decorations of painting and sculpture were mainly designed by Peter von Cornelius, Wilhelm von Kaulbach and Schwanthaler. As opportunity offers, the narrow streets of the older city are converted into broad, straight boulevards, lined with palatial mansions and public buildings. The hygienic improvement effected by these changes, and by a new and excellent water supply, is shown by the mortality averages — 40-4 per thousand in 1871-1875, 30-4 per thousand in 1881-1885, and 20-5 per thousand in 1903-1904. The archi- tectural style which has been principally followed in the later public buildings, among them the law courts, finished in 1897, the German bank, St Martin's hospital, as well as in numerous private dwellings, is the Italian and French Rococo, or Renais- sance, adapted to the traditions of Munich architecture in the 1 7th and i8th centuries. A large proportion of the most notable buildings in Munich are in two streets, the Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse, the creations of the monarchs whose names they bear. The former, three-quarters of a mile long and 40 yds. wide, chiefly contains buildings in the Renaissance style by Friedrich von Gartner. The most striking of these are the palaces of Duke Max and of Prince Luitpold; the Odeon, a large building for concerts, adorned with frescoes and marble busts; the war office; the royal library, in the Florentine palatial style; the Ludwigskirche, a successful reproduction of the Italian Romanesque style, built in 1829-1844, and containing a huge fresco of the Last Judgment by Cornelius; the blind asylum; and, lastly, the university. At one end this street is terminated by the Siegestor, while at the other is the Feldher- renhalle (or hall of the marshals), a copy of the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence, containing statues of Tilly and Wrede by Schwan- thaler. Adjacent is the church of the Theatines, an imposing though somewhat over-ornamented example of the Italian Rococo style; it contains the royal burial vault. In the Maxi- milianstrasse, which extends from Haidhausen on the right bank of the Isar to the Max- Joseph Platz, King Maximilian II. tried to introduce an entirely novel style of domestic architecture, formed by the combination of older forms. At the east end it is closed by the Maximilianeum, an extensive and imposing edifice, adorned externally with large sculptural groups and internally with huge paintings representing the chief scenes in the history of the world. Descending the street, towards the west are passed in succession the old buildings of the Bavarian national museum, the government buildings in which the Com- posite style of Maximilian has been most consistently carried out, and the mint. On the north side of the Max- Joseph Platz lies the royal palace, consisting of the Alte Residenz, the Konigsbau, and the Festsaalbau. The Alte Residenz dates from 1601 to 1616; its apartments are handsomely fitted up in the Rococo style, and the private chapel and the treasury contain several crowns and many other interesting and valuable objects. The Festsaalbau, erected by Klenze in the Italian Renaissance style, is adorned with mural paintings and sculp- tures, while the Konigsbau, a reduced copy of the Pitti Palace at Florence, contains a series of admirable frescoes from the Niebelungenlied by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld. Adjoining .the palace are two theatres, the Residenz or private theatre, and the handsome Hof theater, accommodating 2500 spectators. The Allerheiligen-Hofkirche, or court-church, is in the Byzantine style, with a Romanesque facade. The Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse both end at no great distance from the Frauenplatz in the centre of the old town. On this square stands the Frauenkirche, the cathedral church of the archbishop of Munich-Freising, with its lofty cupola capped towers dominating the whole town. It is imposing from its size, and interesting as one of the few examples of indigenous Munich art. On the adjacent Marienplatz are the old town- hall, dating from the I4th century and restored in 1865, and the new town-hall, the latter a magnificent modern Gothic erection, freely embellished with statues, frescoes, and stained- glass windows, and enlarged in 1900-1905. The column in the centre of the square was erected in 1638, to commemorate the defeat of the Protestants near Prague by the Bavarians during the Thirty Years' War. Among the other churches of Munich the chief place is due to St Boniface's, an admirable copy of an early Christian basilica. It is adorned with a cycle of religious paintings by Heinrich von Hess (1798-1863), and the dome is supported by sixty- four monoliths of grey Tyrolese marble. The parish church of Au, in the Early Gothic style, contains gigantic stained-glass windows and some excellent wood-carving; and the church of St John in Haidhausen is another fine Gothic structure. St Michael's in the Renaissance style, erected for the Jesuits in 1583-1595, contains the monument of Eugene Beauharnais by Thorwaldsen. The facade is divided into storeys, and the general effect is by no means ecclesiastical. St Peter's is inter- esting as the oldest church in Munich (i2th century), though no trace of the original basilica remains. Among newer churches the most noticeable are the Evangelical church of St Luke, a Transitional building, with an imposing dome, finished in 1896, and the Gothic parochial church of the Giesing suburb, with a tower 312 ft. high and rich interior decorations (1866-1884). The valuable collections of art are enshrined in handsome buildings, mostly in the Maximilian suburb on the north side of the town. The old Pinakothek, erected by Klenze in 1826- 1836, and somewhat resembling the Vatican, is embellished externally with frescoes by Cornelius and with statues of twenty- four celebrated painters from sketches by Schwanthaler. It contains a valuable and extensive collection of pictures by the earlier masters, the chief treasures being the early German and Flemish works and the unusually numerous examples of Rubens. It also affords accommodation to more than 300,000 engravings, over 20,000 drawings, and a large collection of vases. Opposite stands the new Pinakothek, built 1846-1853, the frescoes on which, designed by Kaulbach, show the effects of wind and weather. It is devoted to works by painters of the last century, among which Karl Rottmann's Greek landscapes are perhaps the most important. The Glyptothek, a building by Klenze in the Ionic style, and adorned with several groups and MUNICH single statues, contains a valuable series of sculptures, extending from Assyrian and Egyptian monuments down to works by Thorwaldsen and other modern masters. The celebrated Aeginetan marbles preserved here were found in the island of Aegina in 1811. Opposite the Glyptothek stands the exhibition building, in the Corinthian style, it was finished in 1845, and is used for periodic exhibitions of art. In addition to the museum of plaster casts, the Antiquarium (a collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman antiquities under the roof of the new Pinakothek) and the Maillinger collection, connected with the historical museum, Munich also contains several private galleries. Fore- most among these stand the Schack Gallery, bequeathed by the founder, Count Adolph von Schack, to the emperor William II. in 1894, rich in works by modern German masters, and the Lotzbeck collection of sculptures and paintings. Other struc- tures and institutions are the new buildings of the art association ; the academy of the plastic arts (1874-1885), in the Renaissance style; and the royal arsenal (Zeughaus) with the military museum. The Schwanthaler museum contains models of most of the great sculptor's works. The immense scientific collection in the Bavarian national museum, illustrative of the march of progress from the Roman period down tp the present day, compares in completeness with the similar collections at South Kensington and the Musee de Cluny. The building which now houses this collection was erected in 1894-1900. On the walls is a series of well-executed frescoes of scenes from Bavarian history, occupying a space of 16,000 sq. ft. The ethnographical museum, the cabinet of coins, and the collections of fossils, minerals, and physical and optical instruments, are also worthy of mention. The art union, the oldest and roost extensive in Germany, possesses a good collection of modern works. The chief place among the scientific institutions is due to the academy of science, founded in 1759. The royal library contains over 1,300,000 printed volumes and 30,000 manuscripts. The observatory is equipped with instruments by the celebrated Josef Fraunhofer. At the head of the educational institutions of Munich stands the university, founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, removed to Landshut in 1800, and transferred thence to Mumch in 1826. In addition to the four usual faculties there is a fifth — of political economy. In connexion with the university are medical and other schools, a priests' seminary, and a library of 300,000 volumes. The polytechnic institute (Technische Hochschule) in 1899 acquired the privilege of conferring the degree of doctor of technical science. Munich contains several gymnasia or grammar-schools, a military academy, a veterinary college, an agricultural college, a school for architects and builders, and several other technical schools, and a conservatory of music. The general prison in the suburb of Au is considered a model of its kind; and there is also a large military prison. Among other public buildings, the crystal palace (Glas-palast), 765 ft. in length, erected for the great exhibition of 1854, is now used, as occasion requires, for temporary exhibitions. The Wittelsbach palace, built in 1843-1850, in the Early English Pointed style, is one of the residences of the royal family. Among the numerous monuments with which the squares and streets are adorned, the most important are the colossal statue of Maximilian II. in the Maximilianstrasse, the equestrian statues of Louis I. and the elector Maximilian I., the obelisk erected to the 30.000 Bavarians who perished in Napoleon's expedition to Moscow, the Wittelsbach fountain (1895), the monument commemorative of -the peace of 1871, and the marble statue of Justus Liebig, the chemist, set up in 1883. The English garden (Englischer Garten), to the north-east of the town, is 600 acres in extent, and was laid out by Count Rumford in imitation of an English park. On the opposite bank of the Isar, above and below the Maximilianeum, extend the Gasteig promenades, commanding fine views of the town. To the south-west of the town is the Theresienwiese, a large common where the popular festival is celebrated in October. Here is situated the Ruhmeshalle or hall of fame, a Doric colonnade containing busts of eminent Bavarians. In front of it is a colossal bronze statue of Bavaria, 170 ft. high, designed by Schwanthaler. The botanical garden, with its large palm-house, the Hofgarten, surrounded with arcades containing frescoes of Greek landscapes by Rottmann, and the Maximilian park to the east of the Isar, complete the list of public parks. The population of Munich in 1905 was 538,393. The per- manent garrison numbers about 10,000 men. Of the population, 84% are Roman Catholic, 14% Protestants, and 2% Jews. Munich is the seat of the archbishop of Munich-Freising and of the general Protestant consistory for Bavaria. About twenty newspapers are published here, including the Allgemeine Zeitung. Some of the festivals of the Roman Church are cele- brated with considerable pomp; and the people also cling to various national fetes, such as the Metzgersprung, the Schaffler- tanz, and the great October festival. Munich has long been celebrated for its artistic handicrafts, such as bronze-founding, glass- staining, silversmith's work, and wood-carving, while the astronomical instruments of Fraunhofer and the mathematical instruments of Traugott Lieberecht von Ertel (1778-1858) are also widely known. Lithography, which was invented at Munich at the end of the i8th century, is extensively practised here. The other industrial products include wall-paper, railway plant, machinery, gloves and artificial flowers. The most characteristic industry, however, is brewing. Four important markets are held at Munich annually. The city is served by an extensive electric tramway system. History. — The Villa Munichen or Forum ad monachos, so called from the monkish owners of the ground on which it lay, was first called into prominence by Duke Henry the Lion, who established a mint here in 1158, and made it the emporium for the salt coming from Hallein and Reichenhall. The Bavarian dukes of the Wittelsbach house occasionally resided at Munich, and in 1255 Duke Louis made it his capital, having previously surrounded it with walls and a moat. The town was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1327, after which the emperor Louis the Bavarian, in recognition of the loyalty of the citizens, rebuilt it very much on the scale it retained down to the beginning of the 1 9th century. Among the succeeding rulers those who did most for the town in the erection of handsome buildings and the foundation of schools and scientific institutions were Albert V., William V., Maximilian I., Max Joseph and Charles Theodore. In 1632 Munich was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1705, and again in 1742, it was in possession of the Austrians. In 1791 the fortifications were razed. Munich's importance in the' history of art is entirely of modern growth, and may be dated from the acquisition of the Aeginetan marbles by Louis I., then crown prince, in 1812. Among the eminent artists of this period whose names are more or less identified with Munich were Leo von Klenze (1784-1864), Joseph Daniel Ohlmiiller (1791-1839), Friedrich von Gartner (1792-1847), and Georg Friedrich Ziebland (1800-1873), the architects; Peter von Cornelius (1783-1867), Wilhelm von Kaul- bach (1804-1874), Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794-1872), and Karl Rottmann, the painters; and Ludwig von Schwanthaler, the sculptor. Munich is still the leading school of painting in Germany, but the romanticism of the earlier masters has been abandoned for drawing and colouring of a realistic character. Karl von Piloty (1826-1886) and Wilhelm Diez (1839-1907) long stood at the head of this school. See Mittheilungcn de.s statistischen Bureaus der Stadt Munchen (vols. i.-v., 1875-1882); Sold, Munchen mil seinen Umgebungen (1854); Reber, Bautechnischer Fiihrer durch die Stadt Munchen (1876) ; Daniel, Handbuch der Geographic (new ed., 1895); Prantl, Geschichte der Ludwig- Maximilians Universitat (Munich, 1872); Goering, 30 Jahre Munchen (Munich, 1904); von Ammon, Die Gegend von Munchen §sologisch geschildert (Munich, 1895); Kronegg, Illustrierte Geschichte er Stadt Munchen (Munich, 1903); the Jahrbuch fur Munchener Geschichte, edited by Reinhardstottner and Trautmann (Munich, 1887-1894); Aufleger and Trautmann, Alt-Miinchen in Bild und Wort (Munich, 1895) ; Rohmeder, Munchen als Handelsstadt (Munich, 1905); H. Tinsch, Das Stadtrecht von Munchen (Bamberg, 1891); F. Pecht, Geschichte der munchener Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert (Munich, 1888) ; and Trautwein, Fiihrer durch Munchen (2Othed., 1906). There is an English book on Munich by H..R. Wadleigh (1910). MUNICIPALITY— MUNICIPIUM MUNICIPALITY, a modern term (derived from Lat. muni- cipium; see below), now used both for a city or town which is organized for self-government under a municipal corporation, and also for the governing body itself. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, and of superior members, as aldermen and councillors, together with the simple corporators, who are represented by the governing body; it acts as a person by its common seal, and has a perpetual succession, with power to hold lands subject to the restrictions of the Mortmain laws; and it can sue or be sued. Where necessary for its primary objects, every corporation has power to make by-laws and to enforce them by penalties, provided they are not unjust or unreasonable or otherwise inconsistent with the objects of the charter or other instrument of foundation. See BOROUGH, COMMUNE, CORPORATION, LOCAL GOVERNMENT, FINANCE, &c., and for details of the functions of the municipal government see the sections under the general headings of the different countries and the sections on the history of these countries. MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to take), in ancient Rome, the term applied primarily to a status, a certain relation between individuals or communities and the Roman state; subsequently and in ordinary usage to a com- munity, standing in such a relation to Rome. Whether the name signifies the taking up of burdens or the acceptance of privileges is a disputed point. But as ancient authorities are unanimous in giving munus in this connexion the sense of " duty " or " service," it is probable that the chief feature of municipality was the performance of certain services to Rome.1 This view is confirmed by all that we know about the towns to which the name was applied in republican times. The status had its origin in the conferment of citizenship upon Tusculum in 381 B.C. (Livy vi. 26; cf. Cic. pro Plane. 8, 19), and was widely extended in the settlement made by Rome at the close of the Latin War in 338 B.C. (see ROME, History). Italian towns were then divided into three classes: (i) Coloniae civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of citizen- ship; (2) municipia, which received partial citizenship; (3) foeder- alae civitates (including the so-called Latin colonies), which remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by treaty (foedus). The munitipia stood in very different degrees of dependence on Rome. Some, such as Fundi (Livy viii. 14; cf. ibid. 19), enjoyed a local self-government only limited in the matter of jurisdiction; others, such as Anagnia (Livy ix. 43; Festus, de verb, signification, s.v. " municipium," p. 127, ed. Muller), were governed directly from Rome. But they all had certain features in common. Their citizens were called upon to pay the same dues and perform the same service in the legions as full Roman citizens, but were deprived of the chief privileges of citizenship, those of voting in the Comitia (jus suffragii), and of holding Roman magistracies (jus honorum). It would also appear from Festus (op. cit. s.v. praefectura, p. 233) that juris- diction was entrusted in every municipium to praefecti juri dicundo sent out from Rome to represent the Praetor Urbanus.2 The conferment of municipality can therefore hardly have been regarded as other than an imposing of burdens, even in the case of those cities which retained control of their own affairs. But after the close of the second Punic War, when Rome had become the chief power, not only in Italy, but in all the neigh- bouring lands round the Mediterranean, we can trace a growing tendency among the Italian cities to regard citizenship of this great state as a privilege, and to claim complete citizenship as a reward of their services in helping to build up the Roman power. During the 2nd century B.C. the jus suffragii and jus honorum were conferred upon numerous municipia (Livy xxxviii. 36, 37), whose citizens were then enrolled in the Roman tribes. They can have exercised their public rights but seldom, owing to their distance from Rome; but the consulships of C. Marius, 1 For a contrary view, however, see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverw. i. p. 26, n. 2 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881), and authorities there cited. 1 For a different view see Willems, Droit public romain, p. 381 (Louvain, 1874). a municeps of Arpinum (between 107 and 100 B.C.), and the strength of the support given to Tiberius Gracchus in the assembly by the voters from Italian towns (133 B.C.) show what an important influence the members of these municipia could occasionally exercise over Roman politics. The cities thus privileged, however, though receiving complete Roman citizen- ship, were not, as the logic of public law might seem to demand, incorporated in Rome, but continued to exist as independent urban units; and this anomaly survived in the municipal system which was developed, on the basis of these grants of citizen- ship, after the Social War. That system recognized the municeps as at once a citizen of a self-governing city community, and a member of the city of Rome, his dual capacity being illustrated by his right of voting both in the election of Roman magistrates and in the election of magistrates for his cwn town. The result of the Social War which broke out in 91 B.C. (see ROME: History) was the establishment of a new uniform municipality throughout Italy, and the obliteration of any important distinction between the three classes established after the Latin War. By the Lex Julia of 90 B.C. and the Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C. every town in Italy which made application in due form received the complete citizenship. The term municipium was no longer confined to a particular class of Italian towns but was adopted as a convenient name for all urban communities of Roman citizens in Italy. The organization of a municipal system, which should regulate the governments of all these towns on a uniform basis, and define their relation to the Roman government, was probably the work of Sulla, who certainly gave great impetus to the foundation in the provinces of citizen colonies, which were the earliest municipia outside Italy, and enjoyed the same status as the Italian towns. Julius Caesar extended the sphere of the Roman municipal system by his enfranchisement of Cisalpine Gaul, and the consequent inclusion of all the towns of that region in the category of municipia. He seems also to have given a more definite organization to the municipia as a whole. But, excepting those in Cisalpine Gaul, the municipal system still embraced no towns outside Italy other than the citizen colonies. Augustus and his successors adopted the practice of granting to existing towns in the provinces either the full citizenship, or a partial ciiritas known as the jus Latii. This partial civitas does not seem to have been entirely replaced, as in Italy, by the grant of full privileges to the communities possessing it, and the distinction survived for some time in the provinces between coloniae, municipia juris Romani, and municipia juris Latini. But the uniform system of administration gradually adopted in all three classes rendered the distinction entirely unimportant, and the general term municipium is used of all alike. The incorporation of existing towns, hitherto non-Roman, in the uniform municipal system of the principate took place mainly in the eastern part of the Empire, where Greek civiliza- tion had long fostered urban life. In the west city commu- nities rapidly sprang up under direct Roman influence. The development of towns of the municipal type on the sites where legions occupied permanent quarters can be traced in several of the western provinces; and it cannot be doubted that this development became the rule wherever a body of Roman subjects settled down together for any purpose and permanently occupied a region. At any rate by the end of the ist century of the principate municipia are numerous in the western as well as the eastern half of the Empire, and the towns are every- where centres of Roman influence. Of the internal life of the municipia very little is known before the Empire. For the period after Julius Caesar, however, we have two important sources of information. A series of municipal laws gives us a detailed knowledge of the constitution imposed, with slight variations, on all the municipia; and a host of private inscriptions gives particulars of their social life. The municipal constitution of the ist century of the principate is based upon the type of government common to Greece and Rome from earliest times. , The government of each town consists of magistrates, senate and assembly, and is entirely 8 MUNICIPIUM independent of the Roman government except in certain cases of higher civil jurisdiction, which come under the direct cog- nisance of the praetor urbanus at Rome. On the other hand, each community is bound to perform certain services to the Imperial government, such as the contribution of men and horses for military service, the maintenance of the imperial post through its neighbourhood, and the occasional entertain- ment of Roman officials or billeting of soldiers. The citizens were of two classes: (i) cives, whether by birth, naturalization or emancipation, (2) incolae, who enjoyed a partial citizenship based on domicile for a certain period. Both classes were liable to civic burdens, but the incolae had none of the privi- leges of citizenship except a limited right of voting. The citizens were grouped in either tribes or curiae, and accordingly the assembly sometimes bore the name of Comitia Tributa, sometimes that of Comitia Curiata. The theoretical powers of these comitia were extensive both in the election of magis- trates and in legislation. But the growing influence of the senate over elections on the one hand, and on the other hand the increasing reluctance of leading citizens to become candidates for office (see below), gradually made popular election a mere form. The senatorial recommendation of the necessary number of candidates seems to have been merely ratified in the comitia; and a Spanish municipal law of the ist century makes special provision for occasions on which an insufficient number of candidates are forthcoming. In Italy, however, the reality of popular elections seems to have survived to a later date. The inscriptions at Pompeii, for instance, give evidence of keenly contested elections in the 2nd century. The local senate, or curia, always exercised an important influence on municipal politics. Its members formed the local nobility, and at an early date special privileges were granted by Rome to provincials who were senators in their native towns. For the composition, powers, and history of the provincial senate see DECURIO. The magistrates were elected annually, and were six in number, forming three pairs of colleagues. The highest magistrates were the Ilviri (Duoviri) juri dicundo, who had charge, as their name implies, of all local jurisdiction, and presided over the assembly. Candidates for this office were required to be over 25 years of age, to have held one of the minor magistracies, and to possess all the qualifications required of members of the local senate (see DECURIO). Next in dignity were the Hviri aediles, who had charge -of the roads and public buildings, the games and the corn-supply, and exercised police control through- out the town. They appear to have been regarded as sub- ordinate colleagues (collegae minores) of the Hviri juri dicundo, and in some towns at least to have had the right to convene and preside over the comitia in the absence of the latter. Indeed many inscriptions speak of IVviri (Quatluorviri) consisting of two IVviri juri dicundo and two IVviri aediles; but in the majority of cases the former are regarded as distinct and superior magistrates. The two quaestores, who appear to have controlled finance in a large number of municipia, cannot be traced in others; and it is probable that in the municipia, as at Rome, the quaestorship was locally instituted, as need arose, to relieve the supreme magistrates of excessive business. Other municipal magistrates frequently referred to in the inscriptions are the quinquennales and praefecti. The quinquennales super- seded the Ilviri or IVviri juri dicundo every five years, and differed from them only in possessing, in addition to their other powers, those exercised in Rome before the time of Sulla by the censors. Two classes of praefecti are found in the municipalities under the Empire, both of which are to be distinguished from the officials who bore that name in the municipia before the Social War. The first class consists of those praefecti who were nominated as temporary delegates by the Ilviri, when through illness or compulsory absence they were unable to discharge the duties of their office. The second class, referred to in inscriptions by the name of praefecti ab decurionibus creati lege Petronia, seem to have been appointed by the local senate in case of a complete absence of higher magistrates, such as would have led in Rome to the appointment of an interrex. From a social point of view the municipia of the Roman Empire may be treated under three heads: (i) as centres of local self- government, (2) as religious centres, (3) as industrial centres, (i) The chief feature of the local government of the towns is the wide- spread activity of the municipal authorities in improving the general conditions of life in the town. In the municipalities, as in Rome, provision was made out of the public funds for feeding the poorest Eart of the population, and providing a supply of corn which could e bought Dy ordinary citizens at a moderate price. In Pliny's time there existed in many towns public schools controlled by the municipal authorities, concerning which Pliny remarks that they were a source of considerable disturbance in the town at the times when it was necessary to appoint teachers. He himself encouraged the establishment of another kind of municipal school at Como, where the leading townspeople subscribed for the maintenance of the school, and the control, including the appointment of teachers, remained in the hands of the subscribers. Physicians seem to have been maintained in many towns at the public expense. The water- supply was also provided out of the municipal budget, and controlled by magistrates, appointed for the purpose. To enable it to bear the expense involved in all these undertakings, the local treasury was generally assisted by large benefactions, either in money or in works, from individual citizens; but direct taxation for municipal purposes was hardly ever resorted to. The treasury was filled out of the Eroceeds of the landed possessions of the community, especially such •uitful sources of revenue as mines and quarries, and out of import and export duties. It was occasionally subsidized by the emperor on occasions of sudden and exceptional calamity. 2. The chief feature in the religious life of the towns was the important position they occupied as centres for the cult of the emperor. Caesar-worship as an organized cult developed sponta- neously in many provincial towns during the reign of Augustus, and was fostered by him and his successors as a means of promoting in these centres of vigour and prosperity a strong loyalty to Rome and the emperor, which was one of the firmest supports of the latter's power. The order of Augustales, officials appointed to regulate the worship of the emperor in the towns, occupied a position of dignity and importance in provincial society. It was composed of the lead- ing and the wealthiest men among the lower classes of the popula- tion. By the organization of the order on these lines Augustus secured the double object of maintaining Caesar-worship in all the most vigorous centres of provincial life, and attracting to himself and his successors the special devotion of the industrial class which had its origin in the municipia of the Roman Empire, and has become the greatest political force in modern Europe. 3. The development of this free industrial class is the chief feature of the municipia considered as centres of industry and handicraft. The rise to power of the equestrian order in Rome during the last century of the Republic had to some extent modified the old Roman principle that trade and commerce were beneath the dignity of the governing class; but long after the fall of the Republic the aristo- cratic notion survived in Rome that industry and handicrafts were only fit for slaves. In the provincial towns, however, this idea was rapidly disappearing in the early years of the Empire, and even in the country towns of Italy the inscriptions give evidence not much later of the existence of a large and nourishing free industrial class, proud of its occupation, and bound together by a strong esprit de corps. Already the members of this class show a strong tendency to bind themselves together in gilds (collegia, sodalitates) , and the existence of countless associations of the kind is revealed by the inscriptions. The formation of societies for religious and other purposes was frequent at Rome from the earliest times in all classes of the free population. After the time of Sulla these societies were regarded by the government with suspicion, mainly on account of the political uses to which they were turned, and various measures were passed for their suppression in Rome and Italy. This policy was continued by the early emperors and extended to the whole Empire, but in spite of opposition the gilds in the provincial towns grew and flourished. The ostensible objects of nearly all such collegia of which we have any knowledge were twofold, the maintenance of the worship of some god, and provision for the performance of proper funerary rights for its members. But under cover of these two main objects, the only two purposes for which such combinations were allowed under the Empire, associations of all kinds grew up. The organization of the gilds was based on that of the municipality. Each elected its officers and treasurers at an annual meeting, and every five years a revision of the list of members was held, correspond- ing to that of the senators held quinquennially by the city magis- trates. It is doubtful how far these societies served to organize and improve particular industries. There is no evidence to show that any societies during the first three centuries consisted solely of workers at a single craft. But there can be little doubt that the later craft gilds were a development, through the industrial gilds of the provincial towns, of one of the most ancient features of Roman life. Remarkable concord seems generally to have existed in the municipia between the various classes of the population. This is accounted for partly by the strong civic feeling which formed a bond of unity stronger than most sources of friction, and MUNIMENT— MUNKACS partly to the general prosperity of the towns, which removed any acute discontent. The wealthy citizen seems always to have had to bear heavy financial burdens, and to have enjoyed in return a dignity and an actual political preponderance which made the general character of municipal constitutions distinctly timocratic. The policy adopted by the early emperors of encouraging, within the limits of a uniform system, the independence and civic patriotism of the towns, was superseded in the 3rd and 4th centuries by a deliberate effort to use the towns as instru- ments of the imperial government, under the direct control of the emperor or his representatives in the provinces. This policy was accompanied by a gradual decay of civic feeling and municipal enterprise, which showed itself mainly in the un- willingness of the townsmen to become candidates for local magistracies, or to take up the burdens entailed in membership of the municipal senate. Popular control of the local government of the towns was ceasing to be a reality as early as the end of the ist century of the Empire. Two centuries later local government was a mere form. And the self-governing com- munities of the middle ages were a restoration, rather than a development, of the flourishing and independent municipalities of the age of Augustus and his immediate successors. AUTHORITIES. — C. Bruns, Fontes juris romani, c. III., No. 18, and c. IV. (Freiburg, 1893), for Municipal Laws and references to Mommsen's commentary in C.I.L. ; E. Kuhn, Stadtische u. burgerliche Verfasxung des rom. Reichs (Leipzig, 1864): Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, I. i. (Leipzig, 1881); Toutain. in Daremberg- Saglio Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques el romaines, s.v. " Munici- pium "; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, c. 2 and 3 (London, 1904). For the gilds see Mommsen, De collegiis el sodaliciis Romanorum (Keil, 1843); Liebenam, Geschichte u. Organi- sation des rom. Vereinswesens (Leipzig, 1890). (A. M. CL.) MUNIMENT, a word chiefly used in the plural, as a collective term for the documents, charters, title-deeds, &c. relating to the property, rights and privileges of a coiporation, such as a college, a family or private person, and kept as " evidences " for defending the same. Hence the medieval usage of the word munimenlum, in classical Latin, a defence, fortification, from munire, to defend. MUNI RIVER SETTLEMENTS, or SPANISH GUINEA, a Spanish protectorate on the Guinea Coast, West Africa, rectangular in form, with an area of about 9800 sq. m. and an estimated population of 150,000. The protectorate extends inland about 125 miles and is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the German colony of Cameroon, E. and S. by French Congo. The coast- line, 75 m. long, stretches from the mouth of the Campo in 2° 10' N. to the mouth of the Muni in i° N., on the north arm of Corisco Bay. The small islands of Corisco ((?.».), Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico and Bana in Corisco Bay also belong to Spain. From the estuary of the Campo the coast trends S.S.W. in a series of shallow indentations, until at the bold bluff of Cape San Juan it turns eastward and forms Corisco Bay. The coast plain, from 12 to 25 m. wide, is succeeded by the foot-hills of the Crystal Mountains, which traverse the country in a north to south direction. These are a table-land, from which rise granitic hills 700 to 1200 ft. above the geueral level, which is about 2500 ft. above the sea. The mountainous region, which extends inland beyond the Spanish frontier, contains many narrow valleys and marshy depressions. The greater part of the country forms the basin of the river Benito, which, rising in French Congo a little east of the frontier, flows through the centre of the Spanish protectorate and enters the sea, after a course of 300 m., about midway between the Campo and Muni estuaries. The southern bank of the lower course of the Campo and the northern bank of the lower course of the Muni, form part of the protectorate. The mouths of the Campo and Benito are obstructed by sand bars, whereas the channel leading to the Muni is some 36 ft. deep and the river itself is more than double that depth. It is from this superiority of access that the country has been named after the Muni River. The course of all the rivers is obstructed by rapids in their descent from the table-land to the plain. The greater part of the country is covered with dense primeval forest. This forest growth is due to the fertility of the soil and the great rainfall, Spanish Guinea with the neighbouring Cameroon country possessing one of the heaviest rain records of the world. The humidity of the climate joined to the excessive heat (the average tempera- ture is 78° F.) makes the climate trying. In the eastern parts of the protectorate the forest is succeeded by more open country. Among the most common trees are oil-palms, rubber-trees, ebony and mahogany. The forests are the home of monkeys and of innumerable birds and insects, often of gorgeous colouring. In the north-east of the country elephants are numerous. The inhabitants are Bantu-Negroid, the largest tribe repre- sented being the Fang (q.v.), called by the Spaniards Pamues. They are immigrants from the Congo basin and have pushed before them the tribes, such as the Benga, which now occupy the coast-lands. The villages of the Fang are usually placed on the top of small hills. They cultivate the yam, banana and manioc, and are expert fishers and hunters. The European settlements are confined to the coast. There are trading stations at the mouths of the Campo, Benito and Muni rivers, at Bata, midway between the Campo and Benito, and on Elobey Chico. There are cocoa, coffee and other plantations, but the chief trade is in natural products, rubber, palm oil and palm kernels, and timber. Cotton goods and alcohol are the principal imports. Trade is largely in the hands of British and German firms. The annual value of the trade in 1903-1906 was about £100,000. Spain became possessed of Fernando Po at the end of the i8tb century, and Spanish traders somewhat later established " factories " on the neighbouring coasts' of the mainland, but no permanent occupation appears to have been contemplated. During the igth century a number of treaties were concluded betv/een Spanish naval officers and the chiefs of the lower Guinea coast, and when the partition of Africa was in progress Spain laid claim to the territory between the Campo river and the Gabun. Germany and France also claimed the territory, but in 1885 Germany withdrew in favour of France. After protracted negotiations between France and Spain a treaty was signed in June 1900 by which France acknowledged Spanish sovereignty over the coast region between the Campo and Muni rivers and the hinterland as far east as 11° 20' E. of Greenwich, receiving in return concessions from Spain in the Sahara (see Rio DE ORC), and the right of pre-emption over Spain's West African possessions. In 1901-1902 the eastern frontier was delimited, being modified in accordance with natural features. The newly acquired territories were placed under the superintendence of the governor-general of Fernando Po, sub-governors being stationed at Bata, Elobey Chico and Corisco. See R. Beltran y R6zpide, La Guinea espanola (Madrid, 1901), and Guinea continental espanola (Madrid, 1903); H. Lorin, "Lea colonies espagnoles du golfe de Guinee " in Quest, dip. et col., vol. xxi. (1906); E. L. Perea, " Estado actual de los territories espafioles de Guinea " in Revisia de geog. colon, y mercantil (Madrid, 1905) ; J. B. Roche, Aupays des Pahouins (Paris, 1904). A good map compiled by E. d'Almonte on the scale of 1 :2oo,ooo was published in Madrid in 1903. Consult also the works cited under FERNANDO Po. MUNKACS, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bereg, 220 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,640. It is situated on the Latorcza river, and on the outskirts of the East Beskides mountains, where the hills touch the plains. Its most noteworthy buildings are the Greek Catholic cathedral and the beautiful castle of Count Schonborn. In the vicinity, on a steep hill 580 ft. high, stands the old fort of Munkacs, which played an important part in Hungarian history, and was especially famous for its heroic defence by Helene Zrinyi, wife of Emeric Tokoli and mother of Francis Rakoczy II., for three years against the Austrians (1685-1688). It was afterwards used as a prison. Ypsilanti, the hero of Greek liberty, and Kazinczy, the regenerator of Hungarian letters, were confined in it. According to tradition, it was near Munkacs that the Hungarians, towards the end of the gth century, entered the country. In 1896 in the fort was built one of the " millennial 10 MUNKACSY— MUNRO, R. monuments " established at seven different points of the kingdom. MUNKACSY, MICHAEL VON (1844-1900), Hungarian painter, whose real name was MICHAEL (MISKA) LEO LIEB, was the third son of Michael Lieb, a collector of salt-tax in Munkacs, Hungary, and of Cacilia Rock. He was born in that town on the 2oth of February 1844. In 1848 his father was arrested at Miskolcz for complicity in the Hungarian revolution, and died shortly after his release; a little earlier he had also lost his mother, and became dependent upon the charity of relations, of whom an uncle, Rock, became mainly responsible for his maintenance and education. He was apprenticed to a carpenter, Langi, in 1855, but shortly afterwards made the acquaintance of the painters Fischer and Szamossy, whom he accompanied to Arad in 1858. From them he received his first real instruction in art. He worked mainly at Budapest during 1863-1865, and at this time first adopted, from patriotic motives, the name by which he is always known. In 1865 he visited Vienna, returning to Budapest in the following year, and went thence to Munich, where he contributed a few drawings to the Fliegende Blatter. About the end of 1867 he was working at Dusseldorf, where he was much influenced by Ludwig Knaus, and painted (1868- 1869) his first picture of importance, " The Last Day of a Condemned Prisoner," which was exhibited in the Paris Salon in 1870, and obtained for him a mMaille unique and a very considerable reputation. He had already paid a short visit to Paris in 1867, but on the 25th of January 1872 he took up his permanent abode in that city, and remained there during the rest of his working life. Munkacsy's other chief pictures are " Milton dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters " (Paris Exhibition, 1878), " Christ before Pilate " (1881), " Golgotha " (1883), " The Death of Mozart " (1884), " Arpad, chief of the Magyars, taking possession of Hungary," painted for the new House of Parliament in Budapest, and exhibited at the Salon in 1893, and " Ecce Homo." He had hardly completed the latter work when a malady of the brain overtook him, and he died on the 3Oth of April 1900, at Endenich, near Bonn. Just before his last illness he had been offered the directorship of the Hungarian State Gallery at Budapest. Munkacsy's masterly characterization, force and power of dramatic composition secured him a great vogue for his works, but it is doubtful if his reputation will be maintained at the level it reached during his lifetime. " Christ before Pilate " and " Golgotha " were sold for £32,000 and £35,000 respectively to an American buyer. Munkacsy received the following awards for his work exhibited at Paris: Medal, 1870, Medal, 2nd class; Legion of Honour, 1877; Medal of Honour, 1878; Officer of the Legion, 1878; Grand Prix, Exhibition of 1889; Commander of the Legion, 1889. See F. Walther Ilges, " M. von Munkacsy," Kiinstler Mono- graphieji (1899); C. Sedelmeyer, Christ before Pilate (Paris, 1886); I. Beavington Atkinson, " Michael Munkacsy," Magazine of Art (1881). (E. F. S.) MtiNNICH, BURKHARD CHRISTOPH, COUNT (1683-1767), Russian soldier and statesman, was born at Neuenhuntorf, in Oldenburg, in 1683, and at an early age entered the French service. Thence he transferred successively to the armies of Hesse-Darmstadt and of Saxony, and finally, with the rank of general-in-chief and the title of count, he joined the army of Peter II. of Russia. In 1732 he became field-marshal and president of the council of war. In this post he did good service in the re-organization of the Russian army, and founded the cadet corps which was destined to supply the future genera- tions of officers. In 1 734 he took Danzig, and with 1 736 began the Turkish campaigns which made Munnich's reputation as a soldier. Working along the shores of the Black Sea from the Crimea, he took Ochakov after a celebrated siege in 1737, and in 1739 won the battle of Stavutschina, and took Khotin (or Choczim), and established himself firmly in Moldavia. Marshal Miinnich now began to take an active part in political affairs, the particular tone of which was given by his rivalry with Biron, or Bieren, duke of Courland. But his activity was brought to a close by the revolution of 1741; he was arrested on his way to the frontier, and condemned to death. Brought out for execution, and withdrawn from the scaffold, he was later sent to Siberia, where he remained fcr several years, until the accession of Peter III. brought about his release in 1762. Catherine II., who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feld- marschall Miinnich was a fine soldier of the professional type, and many future commanders, notably Louden and Lacy, served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a statesman he is regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism. He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name. He wrote an £bauche pour donner une idee de la forme de V empire "~e Russie (Leipzig, 1774), and his voluminous diaries have appeared in various publications — Herrmann, Beitrage zur Geschichte des russi- schen Reichs (Leipzig. 1843). See Hempel, Leben Miinnichs (Bremen. 1742); Halem, Geschichte des F. M. Grafen Miinnich (Oldenburg^ 1803 ; 2nd ed., 1838) ; Kostomarov, Feldmarschall Miinnich (Russische Geschichte inBiographien,v. 2). MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805), British general, son of Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was born in 1726, and entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in command of the Sgth regiment, and in that year effected the surrender of Mahe from the French. Later, when in command of the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna, and on the 23rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P. for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1780 he was defeated by Hyder Ali near Conjeeveram, and forced to fall back on St Thomas's Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died on the 27th of December 1805. MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONS (1810-1885), British scholar, was born at Elgin on the igth of October 1819. He was educated at Shrewsbury school, where he was one of Kennedy's first pupils, and proceeded to Trinity College, Cam- bridge, in 1838. He became scholar of his college in 1840, second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly-founded chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The great work on which his reputation is mainly based is his edition of Lucretius, the fruit of the labour of many years (text only, i vol., 1860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols., 1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and his judgment unrivalled; and he made close archaeological studies by frequent travels in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction, illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by C. W. King. His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contri- butions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, Sabrinae corolla, are among the most remarkable of a remarkable collec- tion. His Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, they are characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease to be idiomatic. He died at Rome on the 3Oth of March 1885. See Memoir by J. D. Duff, prefixed to a re-issue of the trans, of Lucretius in " Bohn's Classical Library " ('908). MUNRO, MONEO or MONROE, ROBERT (d. c. 1680), Scots general, was a member of a well-known family in Ross-shire, the Munroes of Foulis. With several of his kinsmen he served in the continental wars under Gustavus Adolphus; and he MUNRO, SIR T.— MUNSTER ii appears to have returned to Scotland about 1638, and to have taken some part in the early incidents of the Scottish rebellion against Charles I. In 1642 he went to Ireland, nominally as second in command under Alexander Leslie, but in fact in chief command of the Scottish contingent against the Catholic rebels. After taking and plundering Newry in April 1642, and ineffec- tually attempting to subdue Sir Phelim O'Neill, Munro succeeded in taking prisoner the earl of Antrim at Dunluce. The arrival of Owen Roe O'Neill in Ireland strengthened the cause of the rebels (see O'NEILL), and Munro, who was poorly supplied with provisions and war materials, showed little activity. Moreover, the civil war in England was now creating confusion among parties in Ireland, and the king was anxious to come to terms with the Catholic rebels, and to enlist them on his own behalf against the parliament. The duke of Ormonde, Charles's lieutenant- general in Ireland, acting on the king's orders, signed a cessation of hostilities with the Catholics on the isth of September 1643, and exerted himself to despatch aid to Charles in England. Munro in Ulster, holding his commission from the Scottish parliament, did not recognize the armistice, and his troops accepted the solemn league and covenant, in which they were joined by many English soldiers who left Ormonde to join him. In April 1644 the English parliament entrusted Munro with the command of all the forces in Ulster, both English and Scots. He thereupon seized Belfast, made a raid into the Pale, and unsuccessfully attempted to gain possession of Dundalk and Drogheda. His force was weakened by the necessity for sending troops to Scotland to withstand Montrose; while Owen Roe O'Neill was strengthened by receiving supplies from Spain and the pope. On the sth of June 1646 was fought the battle of Benburb, on the Blackwater, where O'Neill routed Munro, but suffered him to withdraw in safety to Carrickfergus. In 1647 Ormonde was compelled to come to terms with the English parliament, who sent commissioners to Dublin in June of that year. The Scots under Munro refused to surrender Carrick- fergus and Belfast when ordered by the parliament to return to Scotland, and Munro was superseded by the appointment of Monk to the chief command in Ireknd. In September 1648 Carrickfergus was delivered over to Monk by treachery, and Munro was taken prisoner. He was committed to the Tower of London, where he remained a prisoner for five years. In 1654 he was permitted by Cromwell to reside in Ireland, where he had estates in right of his wife, who was the widow of Viscount Montgomery of Ardes. Munro continued to live quietly near Comber, Co. Down, for many years, and probably died there about 1680. He was in part the original of Dugald Dalgetty in Sir Walter Scott's Legend of Montrose. See Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford, 1851); Sir J. T. Gilbert, Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland 1641-1652 (3 vols., Dublin, 1879-1880) and History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (7 vols., Dublin, 1882-1891); John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in Scotland and England (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1850); The Montgomery MSS., 1603-1703, edited by G. Hill (Belfast, 1869); Sir Walter Scott, The Legend of Montrose, author's preface. MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827), Anglo-Indian soldier and statesman, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was at first intended to enter his father's business, but in 1789 he was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder Ali (1780-83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo (1790-92). He was then chosen as one of four military officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years, learning the principles of revenue survey and assessment which he afterwards applied throughout the presidency of Madras. After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, he spent a short time restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years (1800-1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts " ceded " by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced the ryotwari system of land revenue. After a long furlough in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon matters connected with the renewal of the company's charter, he returned to Madras in 1814 with special instructions to reform the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari War in 1817, he was appointed as brigadier-general to command the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion Canning said in the House of Commons: " He went into the field with not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small pro- portion were Europeans. . . . Nine forts were surrendered to him or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and scarcely observed progress he emerged . . . leaving everything secure and tranquil behind him." In 1820 he was appointed governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue assessment and general administration which substantially remain to the present day. His official minutes, published by Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for the modern civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July 1827, while on tour in the " ceded " districts, where his name is preserved by more than one memorial. An equestrian statue of him, by Chantrey, stands in Madras city. See biographies by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881) and J. Bradshaw (1894). MUNSHI, or MOONSHI, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary, used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries employed by Europeans. MUNSTER, GEORG, COUNT zu (1776-1844), German palae- ontologist, was born on the i7th of February 1776. He formed a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological museum at Munich. Count Miinster assisted Goldfuss in his great work Petrefacta Germaniae. He died at Bayreuth on the 23rd of December 1844. MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552), German geographer, mathematician and Hebraist, was born at Ingelheim in the Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tubingen, he entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Luther- anism about 1529. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple of Elias Levita, he was the first German to edit the Hebrew Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, 1534-1535); this edition was accom- panied by a new Latin translation and a large number of anno- tations. He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and was the first to prepare a Grammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527). His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum (1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue, of Latin, Greek and Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmo- graphia, which also appeared in German as a Beschreibung oiler Lander, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of the world in Munster's native language, as well as a supreme effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation period. In this Miinster was assisted by more than one hundred and twenty collaborators. The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung is that of 1550, especially prized for its portraits and its city and costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may notice Munster's Germaniae descriptio of 1530, his Novus orbis of 1532, his Mappa Europae of 1536, his Rhaelia of 1538, his editions of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1538-1540 and among non- g:ographical treatises his Horologiographia, 1531, on dialling (see IAL), his Organum uranicum of 1536 on the planetary motions, and his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered 142. See V. Hantzsch, Sebastian Miinster (1898), in vol. xviii. of the Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, Historical- Philological Section). MUNSTER, a town of Germany, in the district of Upper Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries are spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the yth century, and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In its 12 MUNSTER— MUNSTERBERG, H. neighbourhood is the ruin of Schwarzenberg. The Ministerial, or Gregoriental, which is watered by the river Fecht, is famous for its cheese. See Rathgeber, Milnster-im-Gregoriental (Strassburg, 1874) and F. Hecker, Die Stadt und das Tal zu Miinster im St Gregoriental (Munster, 1890). MUNSTER, a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian pro- vince of Westphalia, and formerly the capital of an important bishopric. It lies in a sandy plain on the Dortmund-Ems canal, at the junction of several railways, 107 m. S.W. of Bremen on the line to Cologne. Pop. (1885), 44,060; (1905) 81,468. The town preserves its medieval character, especially in the " Prinzipal-Markt " and other squares, with their lofty gabled houses and arcades. The fortifications were dismantled during the 1 8th century, their place being taken by gardens and prome- nades. Of the many churches of Munster the most important is the cathedral, one of the most striking in Germany, although disfigured by modern decorations. It was rebuilt in the i3th and I4th centuries, and exhibits a combination of Romanesque and Gothic forms; its chapter-house is specially fine. The beautiful Gothic church of St Lambert (i4th century) was largely rebuilt after 1868; on its tower, which is 312 ft. in height, hang three iron cages in which the bodies of John of Leiden and two of his followers were exposed in 1536. The church of St Ludger, erected in the Romanesque style about 1170, was extended in the Gothic style about 200 years later; it has a tower with a picturesque lantern. The church of St Maurice, founded about 1070, was rebuilt during the igth century, and the Gothic church of Our Lady dates from the i4th century. Other noteworthy buildings are the town-hall, a fine Gothic building of the i4th century, and the Stadtkeller, which contains a collection of early German paintings. The room in the town- hall called the Friedens Saal, in which the peace of Westphalia was signed in October 1648, contains portraits of many ambas- sadors and princes who were present at the ceremony. The Schloss, built in 1767, was formerly the residence of bishops of Munster. The private houses, many of which were the winter residences of the nobility of Westphalia, are admirable examples of German domestic architecture in the i6th, i7th and i8th centuries. The university of Munster, founded after the Seven Years' War and closed at the beginning of the igth century, was reopened as an academy in 1818, and again attained the rank of a university in 1902. It possesses faculties of theology, philosophy and law. In connexion with it are botanical and zoological gardens, several scientific collections, and a library of 1 20,000 volumes. Munster is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and of the administrative and judicial authorities of Westphalia, and is the headquarters of an army corps. The Westphalian society of antiquaries and several other learned bodies also have their headquarters here. Industries include weaving, dyeing, brewing and printing, and the manufacture of furniture and machines. There is a brisk trade in cattle, grain and other products of the neighbourhood. History. — Munster is first mentioned about the year 800, when Charlemagne made it the residence of Ludger, the newly- appointed bishop of the Saxons. Owing to its distance from any available river or important highway, the growth of the settlement round the monasterium was slow, and it was not until after 1186 that it received a charter, the name Munster Having supplanted the original name of Mimegardevoord about a century earlier. During the I3th and I4th centuries the town was one of the most prominent members of the Hanseatic League. At the time of the Reformation the citizens were inclined to adopt the Protestant doctrines, but the excesses of the Anabaptists led in 1535 to the armed intervention of the bishop and to the forcible suppression of all divergence from the older faith. The Thirty Years' War, during which Munster suffered much from the Protestant armies, was ter- minated by the peace of Westphalia, sometimes called the peace of Munster, because it was signed here on the 24th of October 1648. The authority of the bishops, who seldom resided at Munster, was usually somewhat limited, but in 1661 Bishop Christoph Bernhard von Galen took the place by force, built a citadel, and deprived the citizens of many of their privileges. During the Seven Years' War Munster was occupied both by the French and by their foes. Towards the close of the 1 8th century the town was recognized as one of the intellectual centres of Germany. The bishopric of Munster embraced an area of about 2500 sq. m. and contained about 350,000 inhabitants. Its bishops, who resided generally at Ahaus, were princes of the empire. In the 1 7th century Bishop Galen, with his army of 20,000 men. was so powerful that his alliance was sought by Charles II. of England and other European sovereigns. The bishopric was secularized and its lands annexed to Prussia in 1803. See Geisberg, Merkwiirdigkeiten der Stadt Munster (1877) ; Erhard, Geschichte Munslers (1837); A.Tibus, Die Stadt Miinster (Munster, 1882); Hellinghaus, Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der Stadt Munster (Munster, 1898); Pieper, Die alte Universitiit Munster 1773-1818 (Munster, 1902). See also Tucking, Geschichte des Stifts Munster unter C. B. von Galen (Munster, 1865). MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tipperary, Limerick, Kerry, Cork and Waterford (q.v. for topography, &c.). After the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (Mumha) became nominally a provincial kingdom; but as the territory was divided between two families there was constant friction and it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as king over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his two sons, giving Desmond (q.v., Des-Mumha) to Eoghan and Thomond (Tuadh-Mumha) or north Munster to Cormac. He also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong in turn to their descendants. In this way the kingship of Munster survived until 1194; but there were kings of Desmond and Thomond down to the i6th century. Munster was originally of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it included the district of Ely, which belonged to the O'Carrols and formed a part of the present King's County. During the 1 6th century, however, Thomond was for a time included in Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare (q.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney. Part of Munster had been included in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In 1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught) was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first president, and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically new shiring was carried out. MUNSTER AM STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, 2^ m. S. of Kreuznach, on the railway from Bingerbriick to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), 915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rhein- grafenstein (i2th century), formerly a seat of the count palatine of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords of Sickingen, and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Hutten, to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients annually. See Welsch, Das Sol- und Thermalbad Munster am Stein (Kreuz- nach, 1886) and Messer, Fiihrer durch Bad Kreuznach und Munster am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905). MUNSTERBERG, HUGO ( 1 863- ) , German-American psycho- physiologist, was born at Danzig. Having been extraordinary professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 pro- fessor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more important works are Beitriige zur experimentellen Psychologic (4 vols., Freiburg, 1889-1892); Psychology and Life (New York, 1899); Grundzuge der Psychologic (Leipzig, 1900); American Traits from the Point of View of a German (Boston, 1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science and Idealism (New York, 1906); Philosophic der Werte (Leipzig, 1908); Aus Deulsch-Amerika (Berlin, 1908); Psychology and Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified with the modern developments of experimental psychology MUNSTERBERG— MUNZER (see PSYCHOLOGY), and his sociological writings display the acuteness of a German philosophic mind as applied to the study of American life and manners. MUNSTERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian pro- vince of Silesia, on the Ohlau, 36 m. by rail S. of Breslau. Pop. (1905), 8475. It is partly surrounded by medieval walls. It has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are also sulphur springs. Miinsterberg was formerly the capital of the principality of the same name, which existed from the I4th century down to 1791, when it was purchased by the Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey of Heinrichau. MUNTANER, RAMON '(1265-1336?), Catalan historian, was born at Peralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his career are recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger de Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina, served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor, and became the first governor of Gallipoli. Later he was appointed governor of Jerba or Zerbi, an island in the Gulf of Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca. On the isth of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he began his Chronica, o descripcio dels jets, e hazanas del inclyt rey Don laume Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express command of God who appeared to him in a vision. Muntaner's book, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief authority for the events of his period, and his narrative, though occasionally prolix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and vivid. He is said to have died in 1336. His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl Lanz at Stuttgart in 1844. MUNTJAC, the Indian name of a small deer typifying the genus Cerndus, all the members of which are indigenous to the southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, and are separated by marked characters from all their allies. For the distinctive features of the genus see DEER. As regards general characteristics, all muntjacs are small compared with the majority of deer, and have long bodies and rather short limbs and neck. The antlers of the bucks are small and simple; The Indian Muntjac (Cervulus muntjac). the main stem or beam, after giving off a short brow-tine, in- clining backwards and upwards, being unbranched and pointed, and when fully developed curving inwards and somewhat down- wards at the tip. These small antlers are supported upon pedicles, or processes of the frontal bones, longer than in any other deer, the front edges of these being continued downwards as strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the eyes. From this feature the name rib-faced deer has been suggested for the muntjac. The upper canine teeth of the males are large and sharp, projecting outside the mouth as tusks, and loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are much smaller. Muntjacs are solitary animals, even two being rarely seen together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests, in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to graze. They carry the head and neck low and the hind-quarters high, their action in running being peculiar and not elegant, somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no power of sustained speed or extensive leaping, they are remark- able for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through tangled underwood. A popular name with Indian sportsmen is " barking deer," on account of the alarm-cry — a kind of short shrill bark, like that of a fox, but louder. When attacked by dogs, the males use their sharp canine teeth, which inflict deep and even dangerous wounds. In" the Indian muntjac the height of the buck is from 20 tc 22 in.; allied types, some of which have received distinct names, occur in Burma and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Among these, the Burmese C. muntjac grandicornis is noteworthy on account of its large antlers. The Tibetan muntjac (C. lachrymans) , from Moupin in eastern Tibet and Hangchow in China, is somewhat smaller than the Indian animal, with a bright reddish-brown coat. The smallest member of the genus (C. reevest) occurs in southern China and has a reddish-chestnut coat, speckled with yellowish grey and a black band down the nape. The Tenasserim muntjac (C. feae), about the size of the Indian species, is closely allied to the hairy-fronted muntjac (C. crinifrons) of eastern China, but lacks the tuft of hair on the forehead. The last-mentioned species, by its frontal tuft, small rounded ears, general brown coloration, and minute antlers, connects the typical muntjacs with the small tufted deer or tufted muntjacs of the genus Elaphodus of eastern China and Tibet. These last have coarse bristly hair of a purplish-brown colour with light markings, very large head-tufts, almost concealing the minute antlers, of which the pedicles do not extend as ribs down the face. They include E. cephalophus of Tibet, E. michianus of Ningpo, and E. ichangensis of the mountains of Ichang. (R. L.*) MUNZER, THOMAS (c. 1480-1525), German religious enthu- siast, was born at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the 1 5th century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating is theology. He held preaching appointments in various places, but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence, together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a society the principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous ad- herents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion from this city also. At Easter 1523 Miinzer came to Allstedt, and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John, where he made extensive alterations in the services. His violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation for which Miinzer denounced the Wittenberg teaching. His preaching soon produced an uproar in Allstedt, and after holding his own for some time he left the town and went to Miihlhausen, where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar to his own. The union of Miinzer and Pfeiffer caused a disturb- ance in this city and both were expelled. Miinzer went to Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent. He denounced established governments, and advocated common ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany he returned to Miihlhausen, overthrew the governing body of the city, and established a communistic theocracy. The Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of Germany; and as the peasantry around Miihlhausen were imbued with Miinzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at Frankenhausen; but on the isth of May 1525 the peasants were dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured Mtinzer and executed him on the 27th at Miihlhausen. Before his MUNZINGER— MURAD death he is said to have written a letter admitting the justice of his sentence. His Aussgetriickte Emplossung des falschen Glaubens has been edited by R. Jordan (Muhlhausen, 1901), and a life of Munzer, Die Histori von Thome Muntzer des Anfengers der duringischen Uffrur, has been attributed to Philip Melanchthon (Hagenau, 1525). See G. T. Strobel, Leben, Schriften und Lehren Thomd Miinlzers (Nuremberg, 1795); J. K. Seidemann, Thomas Munzer (Leipzig, 1842); O. Merx, Thomas Munzer und Heinrich Pfeiffer (Gottingen, 1889) ; G. Wolfrau, Thomas Munzer in Allstedt (Jena, 1852). MUNZINGER, WERNER (1832-1875), Swiss linguist and traveller, was born at Olten in Switzerland, on the 2ist of April 1832. After studying natural science, Oriental languages and history, at Bern, Munich and Paris, he went to Egypt in 1852 and spent a year in Cairo perfecting himself in Arabic. Entering a French mercantile house, he went as leader of a trading expe- dition to various parts of the Red Sea, fixing his quarters at Massawa, where he acted as French consul. In 1855 he removed to Keren, the chief town of the Bogos, in the north of Abyssinia, which country he explored during the next six years. In 1861 he joined the expedition under T. von Heuglin to Central Africa, but separated from him in November in northern Abyssinia, proceeding along the Gash and Atbara to Khartum. Thence, having meantime succeeded Heuglin as leader of the expedition, he travelled in 1862 to Kordofan, failing, however, in his attempt to reach Darfur and Wadai. After a short stay in Europe in 1863, Munzinger returned to the north and north-east border- lands of Abyssinia, and in 1865, the year of the annexation of Massawa by Egypt, was appointed British consul at that town. He rendered valuable aid to the Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68, among other things exploring the almost unknown Afar country. In acknowledgment of his services he received the C.B. In 1868 he was appointed French consul at Massawa, and in 1871 was named by the khedive Ismail governor of that town with the title of bey. In 1870, with Captain S. B. Miles, Mun- zinger visited southern Arabia. As governor of Massawa he annexed to Egypt the Bogos and Hamasen provinces of northern Abyssinia, and in 1872 was made pasha and governor-general of the eastern Sudan. It is believed that it was on his advice that Ismail sanctioned the Abyssinian enterprise, but on the war assuming larger proportions in 1875 the command of the Egyptian troops in northern Abyssinia was taken from Munzinger, who was selected to command a small expedition intended to open up communication with Menelek, king of Shoa, then at enmity with the negus Johannes (King John) and a potential ally of Egypt. Leaving Tajura Bay on the 27th of October 1875 Munzinger started for Ankober with a force of 350 men, being accompanied by an envoy from Menelek. The desert country to be traversed was in the hands of hostile tribes, and on reaching Lake Aussa the expedition was attacked during the night by Gallas — Mun- zinger, with his wife and nearly all his companions, being killed. Munzinger's contributions to the knowledge of the country, people and languages of north-eastern Africa are of solid value. See Proc. R.G.S., vol. xiii.; Journ. R.G.S., vols. xxxix., xli. and xlvi. (obituary notice); Petermanns Mitteilungen for 1858, 1867, 1872 et seq. ; Dietschi and Weber, Werner Munzinger, ein Lebensbild (1875); J- v- Keller-Zschokke, Werner Munzinger Pasha (1890). Munzinger published the following works: Vber die Sitten und das Recht der Bogos (1859); Ostafrikanische Studien (1864; 2nd ed., 1883; his most valuable book) ; Die deutsche Expedition in Ostafrika (1865) ; Vocabulaire de la langue de Tigre (1865), besides papers in the geo- graphical serials referred to, and a memoir on the northern borders of Abyssinia in the Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde, new series, vol. ih. MURAD, or AMURATH, the name of five Ottoman sultans. MURAD I., surnamed Khudavendighiar (1310-1389), was the son of Orkhan and the Greek princess Nilofer, and succeeded his father in 1359. He was the first Turkish monarch to obtain a definite footing in Europe, and his main object throughout his career was to extend the European dominions of Turkey. The revolts of the prince of Caramania interfered with the realization of this plan, and trouble was caused from this quarter more than once during his reign until the decisive battle of Konia (1387), when the power of the prince of Caramania was broken. The state of Europe facilitated Murad's projects: civil war and anarchy prevailed in most of the countries of Central Europe, where the feudal system was at its last gasp( and the small Balkan states were divided by mutual jealousies. The capture of Adrianople, followed by other conquests, brought about a coalition under the king of Hungary against Murad, but his able lieutenant Lalashahin, the first beylerbey of Rumelia, defeated the allies at the battle of the Maritsa in 1363. In 1366 the king of Servia was defeated at Samakov and forced to pay tribute. Kustendil, Philippopolis and Nish fell into the hands, of the Turks; a renewal of the war in 1381 led to the capture of Sofia two years later. Europe was now aroused; Lazar, king of Servia, formed an alliance with the Albanians, the Hungarians and the Moldavians against the Turks. Murad hastened back to Europe and met his enemies on the field of Kossovo (1389). Victory finally inclined to the side of the Turks. When the rout of the Christians was complete, a Servian named Milosh Kabilovich penetrated to Murad's tent on pretence of communicating an important secret to the sultan, and stabbed the conqueror. Murad was of independent character and remarkable intelligence. He was fond of pleasure and luxury, cruel and cunning. Long relegated to the command of a distant province in Asia, while his brother Suleiman occupied an enviable post in Europe, he became revengeful; thus he exercised great cruelty in the repression of the rebellion of his son Prince Sauji, the first instance of a sultan's son taking arms against his father. Murad transferred the Ottoman capital from Brusa to Adrianople, where he built a palace and added many embellishments to the town. The development of the feudal system of timars and ziamets and its extension to Europe was largely his work. MURAD II. (1403-1451) succeeded his father Mahommed I. in 1421. The attempt of his uncle Prince Mustafa to usurp the throne, supported as it was by the Greeks, gave trouble at the outset of his reign, and led to the unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 1422. Murad maintained a long struggle against the Bosnians and Hungarians, in the course cf which Turkey sustained many severe reverses through the valour oi Janos Hunyadi. Accordingly in 1444 he concluded a treaty at Szegedin for ten years, by which he renounced all claim to Servia and recognized George Brancovich as its king. Shortly after this, being deeply affected by the death of his eldest son Prince Ala-ud-din, he abdicated in favour of Mahommed, his second son, then fourteen years of age. But the treacherous attack, in violation of treaty, by the Christian powers, imposing too hard a task on the inexperienced young sovereign, Murad returned from his retirement at Magnesia, crushed his faithless enemies at the battle of Varna (Novemebr 10, 1444), and again withdrew to Magnesia. A revolt of the janissaries induced him to return to power, and he spent the remaining six years of his life in warfare in Europe, defeating Hunyadi at Kossovo (October 17-19, 1448). He died at Adrianople in 1451, and was buried at Brusa. By some considered as a fanatical devotee, and by others as given up to mysticism, he is generally described as kind and gentle in disposition, and devoted to the interests of his country. MURAD III. (1546-1595), was the eldest son of Selim II., and succeeded his father in 1574. His accession marks the definite beginning of the decline of the Ottoman power, which had only been maintained under Selim II. by the genius of the all-powerful grand vizier Mahommed Sokolli. For, though Sokolli remained in office until his assassination in October 1578, his authority was undermined by the harem influences, which with Murad III. were supreme. Of these the most powerful was that of the sultan's chief wife, named Safie (the pure), a beautiful Venetian of the noble family of Baffo, whose father had been governor of Corfu, and who had been captured as a child by Turkish corsairs and sold into the harem. This lady, in spite of the sultan's sensuality and of the efforts, temporarily successful, to supplant her in his favour, retained her ascendancy over him to the last. Murad had none of the qualities of a ruler. He was good-natured, though cruel enough on occasion: his accession had been marked by the murder, according to the MURAENA •custom then established, of his five brothers. His will-power had early been undermined by the opium habit, and was further weakened by the sensual excesses that ultimately killed him. Nor had he any taste for rule; his days were spent in the society of musicians, buffoons and poets, and he himself dabbled in verse-making of a mystic tendency. His one attempt at reform, the order forbidding the sale of intoxicants so as to stop the growing intemperance of the janissaries, broke down on the opposition of the soldiery. He was the first sultan to share personally in the proceeds of the corruption which was undermining the state, realizing especially large sums by the sale of offices. This corruption was fatally apparent in the army, the feudal basis of which was sapped by the confiscation of fiefs for the benefit of nominees of favourites of the harem, and by the intrusion, through the same influences of foreigners and rayahs into the corps of janissaries, of which the discipline became more and more relaxed and the temper increasingly turbulent. In view of this general demoralization not even the victorious outcome of the campaigns in Georgia, the Crimea, Daghestan, Yemen and Persia (1578-1590) could prevent the decay of the Ottoman power; indeed, by weakening the Mussulman states, they hastened the process, since they facilitated the advance of Russia to the Black Sea and the Caspian. Murad, who had welcomed the Persian War as a good oppor- tunity for ridding himself of the presence of the janissaries, whom he dreaded, had soon cause to fear their triumphant return. Incensed by the debasing of the coinage, which robbed them of part of their pay, they invaded the Divan clamouring for the heads of the sultan's favourite, the beylerbey of Rumelia, and of the defterdar (finance minister), which were thrown to them (April 3, 1589). This was the first time that the janissaries had invaded the palace: a precedent to be too often followed. The outbreak of another European war in 1592 gave the sultan an opportunity of ridding himself of their presence. Murad died in 1595, leaving to his successor a legacy of war and anarchy. It was under Murad III. that England's relations with the Porte began. Negotiations were opened in 1579 with Queen Elizabeth through certain British merchants; in 1580 the first Capitulations with England were signed; in 1583 William Harebone, the first British ambassador to the Porte, arrived at Constantinople, and in 1593 commercial Capitulations were signed with England granting the same privileges as those enjoyed by the French. (See CAPITULATIONS.) MURAD IV. (1611-1640) was the son of Sultan Ahmed I., and succeeded his uncle Mustafa I. in 1623. For the first nine years of his reign his youth prevented him from taking more than an observer's part in affairs. But the lessons thus learnt were sufficiently striking to mould his whole character and policy. The minority of the sultan gave full play to the anarchic elements in the state; the soldiery, spahis and janissaries, conscious of their power and reckless through impunity, rose in revolt whenever the whim seized them, demanding privileges and the heads of those who displeased them, not sparing even the sultan's favourites. In 1631 the spahis of Asia Minor rose in revolt, in protest against the deposition of the grand vizier Khosrev: their representatives crowded to Constantinople, stoned the new grand vizier, Hafiz, in the court of the palace, and pursued the sultan himself into the inner apartments, clamouring for seventeen heads of his advisers and favourites, on penalty of his own deposition. Hafiz was surrendered, a voluntary martyr; other ministers were deposed; Mustafa Pasha, aga of the janissaries, was saved by his own troops. But Mura-d was now beginning to assert himself. Khosrev was executed in Asia Minor by his orders; a plot of the spahis to depose him was frustrated by the loyalty of Koes Mahommed, aga of the janissaries, and of the spahi Rum Mahommed (Mahommed the Greek); and on the 2gth of May 1632, by a successful personal appeal to the loyalty of the janissaries, Murad crushed the rebels, whom he surrounded in the Hippo- drome. At the age of twenty he found himself possessed of effective autocratic power. His severity has remained legendary. Death was the penalty for the least offence, and no past services — as Koes Mahommed was to find to his cost — were admitted in extenuation. The use of tobacco, coffee, opium and wine were forbidden on pain of death; eighteen persons are said to have been put to death in a single day for infringing this rule. During his whole reign, indeed, supposed offenders against the sultan's authority were done to death, singly or in thousands. The tale of his victims is said to have exceeded 100,000. But if he was the most cruel, Murad was also one of the most manly, of the later sultans. He was of gigantic strength, which he maintained by constant physical exercises. He was also fond of hunting, and for this reason usually lived at Adrianople. He broke through the alleged tradition, bequeathed by Suleiman the Magnificent to his successors, that the sultan should not command the troops in person, and took command in the Persian war which led to the capture of Bagdad (1638) and the conclusion of an honourable peace (May 7, 1639). Early in 1640 he died, barely twenty-nine years of age. The cause of his death was acute gout brought on by excessive drinking. In spite of his drunkenness, however, Murad was a bigoted Sunni, and the main cause of his campaign against Persia was his desire to extirpate the Shia heresy. In the intervals of his campaignings and cruelties the sultan would amuse his entourage by exhibit- ing feats of strength, or compose verses, some of which were published under the pseudonym of Muradi. See, for details of the lives of the above, J. von Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte des osmanischen Retches (Pest, 1840), where further authorities are cited. MURAD V. (1840-1904), eldest son of Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 2ist of September 1840. On the accession of his uncle Abd-ul-Aziz, Prince Mahommed Murad Effendi— as he was then called — was deprived of all share in public affairs and imprisoned, owing to his opposition to the sultan's plan for altering the order of succession. On the deposition of Abd-ul-Aziz on the 3oth of May 1876, Murad was haled from his prison by a mob of softas and soldiers of the " Young Turkey " party under Suleiman Pasha, and proclaimed " emperor by the grace of God and the will of the people." Three months later, however, his health, undermined by his long confinement, gave way; and on the 313! of August he was deposed to make room for his younger brother, Abd-ul-Hamid II. He was kept in confinement in the Cheragan palace till his death on the zgth of August 1904. See Keratry, Mourad V., prince, sultan, prisonnier d'ftat 1840- 1876 (Paris, 1878); Djemaleddin Bey, Sultan Murad V., the Turkish Dynasty Mystery, 1876-1895 (London, 1895). MURAENA, the name of an eel common in the Mediterranean, and highly esteemed by the ancient Romans; it was afterwards Muraena picta, from the Indo- Pacific. applied to the whole genus of fishes to which the Mediterranean species belongs, and which is abundantly represented in tropical and sub-tropical seas, especially in rocky parts or on coral reefs. Some ninety species are known. In the majority a long fin runs from the head along the back, round the tail to the vent, i6 MURAL DECORATION but all are destitute of pectoral and ventral fins. The skin is scaleless and smooth, in many species ornamented with varied and bright colours, so that these fishes are frequently mistaken for snakes. The mouth is wide, the jaws strong and armed with formidable, generally sharply pointed, teeth, which enable the Muraena not only to seize its prey (which chiefly consists of other fishes) but also to inflict serious, and sometimes danger- ous, wounds on its enemies. It attacks persons who approach its places of concealment in shallow water, and is feared by fishermen. Some of the tropical Muraenas exceed a length of 10 ft., but most of the species, among them the Mediterranean species, attain to only half that length. The latter, the " morena " of the Italians and the Muraena Helena of ichthyologists, was considered by the ancient Romans to be one of the greatest delicacies, and was kept in large ponds and aquaria. It is not confined to the coasts of southern Europe, but is spread over the Indian Ocean, and is not uncommon on the coasts of Australia. Its body is generally of a rich brown, marked with large yellowish spots, each of which contains smaller brown spots. MURAL DECORATION, a general term for the art of ornament- ing wall surfaces. There is scarcely one of the numerous branches of decorative art which has not at some time or other been applied to this purpose.1 For what may be called the practical or furnishing point of view, see WALL-COVERINGS. Here the subject is treated rather as part of the history of art. x. Reliefs sculptured in Marble or Stone. — This is the oldest method of wall-decoration, of which numerous examples exist. The tombs and temples of Egypt are rich in this kind of mural ornament of various dates, extending over nearly 5000 years. These sculptures are, as a rule, carved in low relief; in many cases they are " counter-sunk," that is, the most projecting parts of the figures do not extend beyond the flat surface of the ground. Some unfinished reliefs discovered in the rock-cut tombs of Thebes show the manner in which the sculptor set to work. The plain surface of the stone was marked out by red lines into a number of squares of equal size. The use of this was probably twofold: first, as a guide in enlarging the design from a small drawing, a method still commonly practised; second, to help the artist to draw his figures with just proportions, following the strict canons which were laid down by the Egyptians. No excessive realism or individuality of style arising from a careful study of the life-model was permitted.2 When the surface had been covered with these squares, the artist drew with a brush dipped in red the outlines of his relief, and then cut round them with his chisel. When the relief was finished, it was, as a rule, entirely painted over with much minuteness and great variety of colours. More rarely the ground was left the natural tint of the stone or marble, and only the figures and hieroglyphs painted. In the case of sculpture in hard basalt or granite the painting appears often to have been omitted altogether. The absence of perspective effects and the severe self-restraint of the sculptors in the matter of composition show a sense of artistic fitness in this kind of decoration. That the rigidity of these sculptured pictures did not arise from want of skill or observation of nature on the part of the artists is apparent when we examine their representations of birds and animals; the special characteristics of each creature and species were unerringly caught by the ancient Egyptian, and reproduced in stone or colour, in a half-symbolic way, suggesting those peculiarities of form, plumage, or movement which are the " differentia " of each, other ideas bearing less directly on the point being eliminated. The subjects of these mural sculptures are endless; almost every possible incident in man's life here or beyond the grave is reproduced with the closest detail. The tomb of Tih at Sakkarah (about 4500 B.C.) has some of the finest and earliest specimens of these mural sculptures, especially rich in illustra- 1 See also CERAMICS ; MOSAIC ; PAINTING ; SCULPTURE ; TAPESTRY ; TILES; also EGYPT; Art and Archaeology; GREEK ART; ROMAN ART; &c. 1 During the earliest times — more than 4000 years before our era — there appear to have been exceptions to this rule. lions of the domestic life and occupations of the Egyptians. The latter tombs, as a rule, have sculptures depicting the religious ritual and belief of the people, and the temples combine these hieratic subjects with the history of the reigns and victor'es of the Egyptian kings. The above remarks as to style and manner of execution may be applied also to the wall-sculptures from the royal palaces of Nineveh and Babylon, the finest of which are shown by inscrip- tions to date from the time of Sennacherib to that of Sardana- palus (from 705 to 625 B.C.). These are carved in low relief with almost gem-like delicacy of detail on enormous slabs of white marble. The sacred subjects, generally representing the king worshipping one of the numerous Assyrian gods, are mostly large, often colossal in scale. The other subjects, illustrating the life and amusements of the king, his prowess in war or hunting, or long processions of prisoners and tribute-bearers coming to do him homage, are generally smaller and in some cases very minute in scale (fig. i). The arrangement of these reliefs FIG. i. — -Assyrian Relief, on a Marble Wall-slab from the Palace of Sardanapalus at Nineveh. in long horizontal bands, and their reserved conventional treat- ment are somewhat similar to those of ancient Egypt, but they show a closer attention to anatomical truth and a greater love for dramatic effect than any of the Egyptian reliefs. As in the art of Egypt, birds and animals are treated with greater realism than human figures. A relief in the British Museum, representing a lioness wounded by an arrow in her spine and dragging helplessly her paralysed hind legs, affords an example of wonderful truth and pathos. Remarkable technical skill is shown in all these sculptures by the way in which the sculptors have obtained the utmost amount of effect with the smallest possible amount of relief, in this respect calling strongly to mind a similar peculiarity in the work of the Florentine Donatello. The palace at Mashita on the hajj road in Moab, built by the Sasanian Chosroes II. (A.D. 614-627), is ornamented on the exterior with beautiful surface sculpture in stone. The designs are of peculiar interest as forming a link between Assyrian and Byzantine art, and they are not remotely connected with the decoration on Moslem buildings of comparatively modern date.3 Especially in Italy during the middle ages a similar treatment * Among the Mashita carvings occurs that oldest and most widely spread of all forms of Aryan ornament — the sacred tree between two animals. The sculptured slab over the " lion-gate " at Mycenae has the other common variety of this motive^— the fire-altar between the beasts. These designs, occasionally varied by figures of human worshippers instead of the beasts, survived long after their meaning had been forgotten; even down to the present day they frequently appear on carpets and other textiles of Oriental manufacture. MURAL DECORATION of marble in low relief was frequently used for wall-decoration. The most notable example is the beautiful series of reliefs on the west front of Orvieto Cathedral, the work of Giovanni Pisano and his pupils in the early part of the i4th century. These are small reliefs, illustrative of the Old and New Testaments, of graceful design and skilful execution. A growth of branching foliage serves to unite and frame the tiers of subjects. Of a widely different class, but of considerable importance in the history of mural decoration, are the beautiful reliefs, sculp- tured in stone and marble, with which Moslem buildings in many parts of the world are ornamented. These are mostly geometrical patterns of great intricacy, which cover large surfaces, frequently broken up into panels by bands of more flowing ornament or Arabic inscriptions. The mosques of Cairo, India and Persia, and the domestic Moslem buildings of Spain are extremely rich in this method of decoration. In western Europe, especially during the isth century, stone panelled-work with rich tracery formed a large part of the scheme of decoration in all the more splendid buildings. Akin to this, though without actual relief, is the stone tracery — inlaid flush into rough flint walls — which was a mode of ornament largely used for enriching the exteriors of churches in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. It is almost peculiar to that district, and is an example of the skill and taste with which the medieval builders adapted their method of ornamentation to the materials in hand. 2. Marble Veneer. — Another widely used method of mural decoration has been the application of thin marble linings to wall-surfaces, the decorative effect being produced by the natural beauty of the marble itself and not by sculptured reliefs. One of the oldest buildings in the world, the so-called " Temple of the Sphinx " among the Giza pyramids, is built of great blocks of granite, the inside of the rooms being lined with slabs of semi- transparent African alabaster about 3 in. thick. In the ist cen- tury thin veneers of richly coloured marbles were largely used by the Romans to decorate brick and stone walls. Pliny (H. N. xxxvi. 6) speaks of this practice as being a new and degenerate invention in his time. Many examples exist at Pompeii and in other Roman buildings. Numerous Byzantine churches, such as St Saviour's at Constantinople, and St George's, Thessalonica, have the lower part of the internal walls richly ornamented in this way. It was commonly used to form a dado, the upper part of the building being covered with mosaic. The cathedral of Monreale and other Siculo-Norman buildings owe a great deal of their splendour to these linings of richly variegated marbles. In most cases the main surface is of light-coloured marble or alabaster, inlaid bands of darker tint or coloured mosaic being used to divide the surface into panels. The peculiar Italian- Gothic of northern and central Italy during the I4th and isth centuries, and at Venice some centuries earlier, relied greatly for its effects on this treatment of marble. St Mark's at Venice and the cathedral of Florence are magnificent examples of this work used externally. Both inside and out most of the richest examples of Moslem architecture owe much to this method of decoration; the mosques and palaces of India and Persia are in many cases completely lined with the most brilliant sorts of marble of contrasting tints. 3. Wall-Linings of Glazed Bricks or Tiles. — This is a very important class of decoration, and from its almost imperishable nature, its richness of colour, and its brilliance of surface is capable of producing a splendour of effect only rivalled by glass mosaics. In the less important form — that of bricks modelled or stamped in relief with figures and inscriptions, and then coated with a brilliant colour in siliceous enamel — it was largely used by the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians as well as by the later Sasanians of Persia. In the nth and 1 2th centuries the Moslems of Persia brought this art to great perfection, and used it on a large scale, chiefly, though not invariably, for internal walls. The main surfaces were covered by thick earthenware tiles, overlaid with a white enamel. These were not rectangular, but of various shapes, mostly some form of a star, arranged so as to fit closely together. Delicate and minute patterns were then painted on the tiles, after the first firing, in a copper-like colour with strong metallic lustre, produced by the deoxidization of a metallic salt in the process of the second firing. Bands and friezes with Arabic inscriptions, modelled boldly in high relief, were used to break up the monotony of the surface. In these, as a rule, the projecting letters were painted blue, and the flat ground enriched with very minute patterns in the lustre-colour. This combination of bold relief and delicate painting produces great vigour and richness of effect, equally telling whether viewed in the mass or closely examined tile by tile. In the i5th century lustre-colours, though still largely employed for plates, vases and other vessels, especially in Spain, were little used for tiles; and another class of ware, rich in the variety and brilliance of its colours, was extensively used by Moslem builders all over the Mahommedan world. The most sumptuous sorts of tiles used for wall-coverings are those of the so-called " Rhodian " and Damascene wares, the work of Persian potters at many places. Those made at Rhodes are coarsely executed in comparison with the produce of the older potteries at Isfahan and Damascus (see CERAMICS). These are rectangular tiles of earthenware, covered with a white " slip," and painted in brilliant colours with slight conventionalized representations of various flowers, especially the rose, the hyacinth and the carnation. The red used is applied in considerable body, so as to stand out in slight relief. Another class of design is more geometrical, forming regular repeats; but the most beautiful compositions are those in which the natural growth of trees and flowers is imitated, the branches and blossoms spreading over a large surface covered by hundreds of tiles without any repetition. One of the finest examples is the " Mecca wall " in the mosque of Ibrahim Agha, Cairo; and other Egyptian mosques are adorned in the same way (fig. 2). Another variety, the special production of Damascus, FIG. 2. — One of the Wall-tiles from the Mosque of Ibrahim Agha, Cairo. (10 in. square.) has the design almost entirely executed in blue. It was about A.D. 1600, in the reign of Shah Abbas I., that this class of pottery was brought to greatest perfection, and it is in Persia that the most magnificent examples are found, dating from the izth to the 1 7th centuries. The most remarkable examples for beauty and extent are the mosque at Tabriz, built by Ah' Khoja in the 1 2th century, the ruined tomb of Sultan Khodabend (A.D. 1303- 1316) at Sultaniyas, the palace of Shah Abbas I. and the tomb of Abbas II. (d. A.D. 1666) at Isfahan, all of which buildings are covered almost entirely inside and out. Another important class of wall-tiles are those manufactured by the Spanish Moors, called " azulejos," especially during the 1 4th century. These are in a very different style, being designed i8 MURAL DECORATION to suggest or imitate mosaic. They have intricate inter- lacing geometrical patterns marked out by lines in slight relief; brilliant enamel colours were then burned into the tile, the projecting lines forming boundaries for the pigments. A rich effect is produced by this combination of relief apd colour. They are mainly used for dadoes about 4 ft. high, often sur- mounted by a band of tiles with painted inscriptions. The Alhambra and Generalife Palaces at Granada, begun in the I3th century, but mainly built and decorated by Yusuf I. and Mahommed V. (A.D. 1333-1391), and the Alcazar at Seville have the most beautiful examples of these " azulejos." The latter building chiefly owes its decorations to Pedro the Cruel (A.D. 1364), who employed Moorish workmen for its tile-coverings and other ornaments. Many other buildings in southern Spain are enriched in the same way, some as late as the i6th century. Almost peculiar to Spain are a variety of wall-tile the work of Italians in the i6th and I7th centuries. These are effective, though rather coarsely painted, and have a rich yellow as the predominant colour. The Casa de Pilatos and Isabel's Chapel in the Alcazar Palace, both at Seville, have the best specimens of these, dating about the year 1 500. In other Western countries tiles have been used more for pavements than for wall-decoration. 4. Wall-Coverings of Hard Stucco, frequently enriched with Reliefs. — The Greeks and Romans possessed the secret of making a hard kind of stucco, creamy in colour, and capable of receiving a polish like that of marble; it would stand exposure to the weather. Those of the early Greek temples which were built, not of marble, but of stone, such as the Doric temples at Aegina, Phigaleia, Paestum and Agrigentum, were all entirely coated inside and out with this material, an admirable surface for the further polychromatic decoration with which all Greek buildings seem to have been ornamented. Another highly artistic use of stucco among the Greeks and Romans, for the interiors of buildings, consisted in covering the walls and vaults with a smooth coat, on which while still wet the outlines of figures, FIG. 3. — Modelled Stucco Wall-Relief, from a Tomb in Magna Graecia. (About half full size.) groups and other ornaments were sketched with a point; more stucco was then applied in lumps and rapidly modelled into delicate relief before it had time to set. Some tombs in Magna Graecia of the 4th century B.C. are decorated in this way with figures of nymphs, cupids, animals and wreaths, all of which are models of grace and elegance, and remarkable for the dexterous way in which a few rapid touches of the modelling tool or thumb have produced a work of the highest artistic beauty (fig. 3). Roman specimens of this sort of decoration are common, fine examples have been found in the baths of Titus and numerous tombs near Rome, as well as in many of the houses of Pompeii. FIG. 4. — Stucco Wall-Relief, from the Alhambra. These are mostly executed with great skill and frequently with good taste, though in some cases, especially at Pompeii, elaborate architectural compositions with awkward attempts at effects of violent perspective, modelled in slight relief on flat wall-surfaces, produce an unpleasing effect. Other Pompeian examples, where the surface is divided into flat panels, each containing a figure or group, have great merit for their delicate richness, v/ithout offending against the canons of wall-decoration, one of the first conditions of which is that no attempt should be made to disguise the fact of its being a solid wall and a flat surface. The Moslem architects of the middle ages made great use of stucco ornament both for external and internal walls. The stucco is modelled in high or low relief in great variety of geo- metrical patterns, alternating with bands of more flowing ornament or long Arabic inscriptions. Many of their buildings, such as the mosque of Tulun at Cairo (A.D. 879), owe nearly all their beauty to this fine stucco work, the purely architectural shell of the structure being often simple and devoid of ornament. These stucco reliefs were, as a rule, further decorated with delicate painting in gold and colours. The Moorish tower at Segovia in Spain is a good example of this class of ornament used externally. With the exception of a few bands of brick and the stone quoins at the angles, the whole exterior of the tower is covered with a network of stucco reliefs in simple geometrical patterns. The Alhambra at Granada and the Alcazar at Seville have the richest examples of this work. The lower part of the walls is lined with marble or tiles to a height of about 4 ft. and above that in many cases the whole surface is encrusted with these reliefs, the varied surface of which, by producing endless gradations of shadow, takes away any possible harshness from the brilliance of the gold and colours (fig. 4). During the i6th century, and even earlier, stucco wall-reliefs were used with considerable skill and decorative effect in Italy, England and other Western countries. Perhaps the most graceful MURAL DECORATION examples are the reliefs with which Vasari in the i6th century encrusted pillars and other parts of the court in the Florentine Palazzo Vecchio, built of plain stone by Michelozzo in 1454. Some are of flowing vines and other plants winding spirally round the columns. The English examples of this work are effectively designed, though coarser in execution. The outside of a half-timbered house in the market-place at Newark-upon- Trent has high reliefs in stucco of canopied figures, dating from the end of the isth century. The counties of Essex and Suffolk are rich in examples of this work used externally; and many 16th-century houses in England have fine internal stucco decoration, especially Hardwicke Hall (Derbyshire), one of the rooms of which has the upper part of the wall enriched with life-sized stucco figures in high relief, forming a deep frieze all round. 5. Sgraffito. — This is a variety of stucco work used chiefly in Italy from the i6th century downwards, and employed only for exteriors of buildings, especially the palaces of Tuscany and northern Italy. The wall is covered with a coat of stucco made black by an admixture of charcoal; over this a second thin coat of white stucco is laid. When it is all hard the design is produced by cutting and scratching away the white skin, so as to show the black under-coat. Thus the drawing appears in black on a white ground. This work is effective at a distance, as it requires a bold style of handling, in which the shadows are indicated by cross-hatched lines more or less near together.1 Flowing ara- besques mixed with grotesque figures occur most frequently in sgraffito. In recent years the sgraffito method has been revived; and the result of Mr Moody's experiments may be seen on the east wall of the Royal College of Science in Exhibition Road, London. 6. Stamped Leather. — This was a magnificent and expensive form of wall-hanging, chiefly used during the i6th and lyth centuries. Skins, generally of goats or calves, were well tanned and cut into rectangular shapes. They were then covered with FIG. 5. — Italian Stamped Leather; i6th century, silver leaf, which was varnished with a transparent yellow lacquer making the silver look like gold. The skins were then stamped or embossed with patterns in relief, formed by heavy pressure from metal dies, one in relief and the other sunk. The reliefs were then painted by hand in many colours, generally brilliant 1 A good description of the process is given by Vasari, Tre arti del disegno, cap. xxvi. in tone. Italy and Spain (especially Cordova) were important seats of this manufacture; and in the 17th century a large quantity was produced in France. Fig. 5 gives a good example of Italian stamped leather of the i6th century. In England, chiefly at Norwich, this manufacture was carried on in the 1 7th and i8th centuries. In durability and richness of effect stamped leather surpasses most other forms of movable wall- decoration. 7. Painted Cloth. — Another form of wall-hanging, used most largely during the isth and i6th centuries, and in a less extensive way a good deal earlier, is canvas painted to imitate tapestry. English medieval inventories both of ecclesiastical and domestic goods frequently contain items such as these: " stayned cloths for hangings," " paynted cloths with stories and batailes," or " paynted cloths of beyond sea work," or " of Flaunder's work." Many good artists working at Ghent and Bruges during the first half of the isth century produced fine work of this class, as well as designs for real tapestry. Several of the great Italian artists devoted their skill in composition and invention to the painting of these wall-hangings. The most important existing example is the series of paintings of the triumph of Julius Caesar executed by Andrea Mantegna (1485-1492) for Ludovico Gonzaga, duke of Mantua, and now at Hampton Court. These are usually, but wrongly, called " cartoons," as if they were designs meant to be executed in tapestry; this is not the case, as the paintings themselves were used as wall-hangings. They are nine in number and each compartment, 9 ft. square, was separated from the next by a pilaster. They form a continuous procession, with life- sized figures, remarkable for their composition, drawing and delicate colouring — the latter unfortunately much disguised by " restoration." Like most of these painted wall-hangings, they are executed in tempera, and rather thinly painted, so that the pigment might not crack off through the cloth falling slightly into folds. Another remarkable series of painted cloth hangings are those at Reims Cathedral. In some cases dyes were used for this work. A MS. of the isth century gives receipts for " painted cloth," showing that sometimes they were dyed in a manner similar to those Indian stuffs which were afterwards printed, and are now called chintzes. These receipts are for real dyes, not for pigments, and among them is the earliest known description of the process called "setting" the woad or indigo vat, as well as a receipt for removing or " discharging " the colour from a cloth already dyed. Another method employed was a sort of " encaustic " process; the cloth was rubbed all over with wax, and then painted in tempera; heat was then applied so that the colours sank into the melting wax, and were thus firmly fixed upon the cloth. 8. Printed Hangings and Wail-Papers. — The printing of various textiles with dye-colours and mordants is probably one of the most ancient arts. Pliny (H. N. xxxv.) describes a dyeing process employed by the ancient Egyptians, in which the pattern was probably formed by printing from blocks. Various methods have been used for this work — wood blocks in relief, engraved metal plates, stencil plates and even hand- painting; frequently two or more of these methods have been employed for the same pattern. The use of printed stuffs is of great antiquity among the Hindus and Chinese, and was certainly practised in western Europe in the I3th century, and perhaps earlier. The Victoria and Albert Museum has 13th-century specimens of block-printed silk made in Sicily, of beautiful design. Towards the end of the i4th century a great deal of block-printed linen was made in Flanders, and largely imported into England. Wall-papers did not come into common use in Europe till the 1 8th century, though they appear to have been used much earlier by the Chinese. A few rare examples exist in England which may be as early as the i6th century; these are imitations, generally in flock, of the fine old Florentine and Genoese cut velvets, and hence the style of the design in no way shows the date of the wall-paper, the same traditional patterns being reproduced for many years with little or no change. Machinery enabling paper to be made in long strips was not invented till 20 MURAL DECORATION the end of the i8th century, and up to that time wall-papers were printed on small square pieces of hand-made paper, difficult to hang, disfigured by numerous joints, and comparatively costly; on these accounts wall-papers were slow in superseding the older modes of mural decoration. A little work by Jackson of Battersea, printed in London in 1744, throws some light on the use of wall-papers at that time. He gives reduced copies of his designs, mostly taken from Italian pictures or antique sculpture during his residence in Venice. Instead of flowing patterns covering the wall, his designs are all pictures — land- scapes, architectural scenes or statues — treated as panels, with plain paper or painting between. They are all printed in oil, with wooden blocks worked with a rolling press, apparently an invention of his own. They are all in the worst possible taste, and yet are offered as great improvements on the Chinese papers which he says were then in fashion. Fig. 6 is a good English FIG. 6. — Early 18th-century Wail-Paper. (22 in. wide.) example of 18th-century wall-paper printed on squares of stout hand-made paper 22 in. wide. The design is apparently copied from an Indian chintz. In the iQth century in England, a great advance in the designing of wall-papers was made by William Morris and his school. 9. Painting. — This is naturally the most important and the most widely used of all forms of wall-decoration, as well as perhaps the earliest. Egypt (see EGYPT: Art and Archaeology) is the chief store- house of ancient specimens of this, as of almost all the arts. Owing to the intimate connexion between the platings, sculpture and painting of early times, the remarks above as to subjects and treatment under the head of Egyptian wall-sculpture will to a great extent apply also to the paintings. It is an important fact, which testifies to the antiquity of Egyptian civilization, that the earliest paintings, dating more than 4000 years before our era, are also the cleverest both in drawing and execution. In later times the influence of Egyptian art, especially in painting, was important even among distant nations. In the 6th century B.C. Egyptian colonists, introduced by Cambyses into Persepolis, influenced the painting and sculpture of the great Persian Empire and throughout the valley of the Euphrates. In a lesser degree the art of Babylon and Nineveh had felt considerable Egyptian influence several centuries earlier. The same influence affected the early art of the Greeks and the Etrurians, and it was not till the middle of the 5th century B.C. that the further development and perfecting of art in Greece obliterated the old traces of Egyptian mannerism. After the death of Alexander the Great, when Egypt came into the possession of the Lagidae (320 B.C.), the tide of influence flowed the other way, and Greek art modified though it did not seriously alter the characteristics of Egyptian painting and sculpture, which retained much of their early formalism and severity. Yet the increased sense of beauty, especially in the human face, derived from the Greeks was counterbalanced by loss of vigour; art under the Ptolemies became a dull copy ism of earlier traditions. The general scheme of mural painting in the buildings of ancient Egypt was complete and magnificent. Columns, mouldings and other architectural features were enriched with patterns in brilliant colours; the fiat wall -spaces were covered with figure-subjects, generally in horizontal bands, and the ceilings were ornamented with sacred symbols, such as the vulture or painted blue and studded with gold stars to symbolize the sky. The wall-paintings are executed in tempera on a thin skin (Taken from Lottie's Ride in Egypt.) FIG. 7. — Egyptian Wall-Painting of the Ancient Empire in the Bulak Museum. of fine lime, laid over the brick, stone or marble to form a smooth and slightly absorbent coat to receive the pigments, which were most brilliant in tone and of great variety of tint. Not employing fresco, the Egyptian artists were not restricted to " earth colours," but occasionally used purples, pinks and greens which would have been destroyed by fresh lime. The blue used is very beautiful, and is generally laid on in considerable body — it is frequently a " smalt " or deep-blue glass, coloured by copper oxide, finely powdered. Red and yellow ochre, carbon-black, and powdered chalk-white are most largely used. Though in the paintings of animals and birds considerable realism is often seen (fig. 7), yet for human figures certain conventional colours are employed, e.g. white for females' flesh, red for the males, or black to indicate people of negro race. Heads are painted in profile, and little or no shading is used. Considerable knowledge of harmony is shown in the arrangement of the colours; and otherwise harsh combinations of tints are softened and brought into keeping by thin separating lines of white or yellow. Though at first sight the general colouring, if seen in a museum, may appear crude, yet it should be remembered that the internal paintings were much softened by the dim light in Egyptian buildings, and those outside were subdued by contrast with the brilliant sunshine under which they were always seen. The rock-cut sepulchres of the Etrurians supply the only existing specimens of their mural painting; and, unlike the tombs of Egypt, only a small proportion appear to BtruKM have been decorated in this way. The actual dates paiatiag. of these paintings are very uncertain, but they range possibly from about the 8th century B.C. down to almost the Christian era. The tombs which possess these paintings are MURAL DECORATION 21 mostly square-shaped rooms, with slightly-arched or gabled roofs, excavated in soft sandstone or tufa hillsides. The earlier ones show Egyptian influence in drawing and in composition : they are broadly designed with flat unshaded tints, the faces in profile, except the eyes, which are drawn as if seen in front. Colours, as in Egypt, are used conventionally — male flesh red, white or pale yellow for the females, black for demons. In one respect these paintings differ from those of the Egyptians; few colours are used— red, brown, and yellow ochres, carbon-black, lime or chalk-white, and occasionally blue are the only pigments. The rock-walls are prepared by being covered with a thin skin of lime stucco, and lime or chalk is mixed in small quantities with all the colours; hence the restriction to " earth pigments," made necessary by the dampness of these subterranean chambers. The process employed was in fact a kind of fresco, though the stucco ground was not applied in small patches only sufficient for the day's work; the dampness of the rock was enough to keep the stucco skin moist, and so allow the necessary infiltration of colour from the surface. Many of these paintings when first discovered were fresh in tint and uninjured by time, but they are soon dulled by exposure to light. In the course of centuries great changes of style naturally took place; the early Egyptian influence, probably brought to Etruria through the Phoenician traders, was succeeded by an even more strongly-marked Greek influence — at first archaic and stiff, then developing into great beauty of drawing, and finally yielding to the Roman spirit, as the degradation of Greek art advanced under their powerful but inartistic Roman conquerors. Throughout this succession of styles — Egyptian, Greek and Graeco-Roman — there runs a distinct undercurrent of individu- ality due to the Etruscans themselves. This appears not only in the drawing but also in the choice of subjects. In addition to pictures of banquets with musicians and dancers, hunting and racing scenes, the workshops of different craftsmen and other domestic subjects, all thoroughly Hellenic in sentiment, other paintings occur which are very un-Greek in feeling. These represent the judgment and punishment of souls in a future life. Mantus, Charun and other infernal deities of the Rasena, hideous in aspect and armed with hammers, or furies depicted as black-bearded demons winged and brandishing live snakes, terrify or torture shrinking human souls. Others, not the earliest in date, represent human sacrifices, such as those at the tomb of Patroclus — a class of subjects which, though Homeric, appears rarely to have been selected by Greek painters. The constant import into Etruria of large quantities of fine Greek painted vases appears to have contributed to keep up the supremacy of Hellenic influence during many centuries, and by their artistic superiority to have prevented the development of a more original and native school of art. Though we now know Etruscan painting only from the tombs, yet Pliny mentions (H . N. xxxv. 3) that fine wall-paintings existed in his time, with colours yet fresh, on the walls of ruined temples at Ardea and Lanuvium, executed, he says, before the founding of Rome. As before men- tioned, the actual dates of the existing paintings are uncertain. It cannot therefore be asserted that any existing specimens are much older than 600 B.C., though some, especially at Veii, certainly appear to have the characteristics of more remote antiquity. The most important of these paintings have been discovered in the cemeteries of Veii, Caere, Tarquinii, Vulci, Cervetri and other Etruscan cities. Even in Egypt the use of colour does not appear to have been more universal than it was among the Greeks (see GREEK ART), Greek w^° aPPued 'lt freely to their marble statues and Paiatiag. reliefs, the whole of their buildings inside and out, as well as for the decoration of flat wall-surfaces. They appear to have cared little for pure form, and not to have valued the delicate ivory-like tint and beautiful texture of their fine Pentelic and Parian marbles, except as a ground for coloured ornament. A whole class of artists, called A-yaX/jdmoi' tyKavarai, were occupied in colouring marble sculpture, and their services were very highly valued.1 In seme cases, probably for the sake of 1 This process, circumlitio, is mentioned by Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 40). hiding the joints and getting a more absorbent surface, the marble, however pure and fine in texture, was covered with a thin skin of stucco made of mixed lime and powdered marble. An alabaster sarcophagus, found in a tomb near Corneto, and now in the Etruscan museum at Florence, is decorated outside with beautiful purely Greek paintings, executed on a stucco skin as hard and smooth as the alabaster. The pictures represent combats of the Greeks and Amazons. The colouring, though rather brilliant, is simply treated, and the figures are kept strictly to one plane without any attempt at complicated perspective. Other valuable specimens of Greek art, found at Herculaneum and now in the Naples Museum, are some small paintings, one of girls playing with dice, another of Theseus and the Minotaur. These are painted with miniature-like delicacy on the bare surface of marble slabs; they are almost monochromatic, and are of the highest beauty both in drawing and in gradations of shadow — quite unlike any of the Greek vase-paintings. The first-mentioned painting is signed AAEEANAPOS A6HNAI02. It is probable that the strictly archaic paintings of the Greeks, such as those of Polygnotus in the 5th century B.C., executed with few and simple colours, had much resemblance to those on vases, but Pliny is wrong when he asserts that, till the time of Apelles (c. 350-310 B.C.), the Greek painters only used black, white, red and yellow.2 Judging from the peculiar way in which the Greeks and their imitators the Romans used the names of colours, it appears that they paid more attention to tones and relations of colour than to actual hues. Thus most Greek and Latin colour-names are now untranslatable. Homer's " wine- like sea " (olvo»i/), Sophocles's " wine-coloured ivy " ((Ed. Col.), and Horace's " purpureus olor " probably refer less to what we should call colour than to the chromatic strength of the various objects and their more or less strong powers of reflecting light, either in motion or when at rest. Nor have we any word like Virgil's " flavus," which could be applied both to a lady's hair and to the leaf of an olive-tree.3 During the best periods of Greek art the favourite classes of subjects were scenes from poetry, especially Homer and con- temporary history. The names TnvaKoOriia] and trroa iromXij were given to many public buildings from their walls being covered with paintings. Additional interest was given to the historical subjects by the introduction of portraits; e.g. in the great picture of the battle of Marathon (490 B.C.), on the walls of the errod irotKtXij in Athens, portraits were given of the Greek generals Miltiades, Callimachus, and others. This picture was painted about forty years after the battle by Polygnotus and Micon. One of the earliest pictures recorded by Pliny (xxxv. 8) represented a battle of the Magnesians (c. 716 B.C.); it was painted by Bularchus, a Lydian artist, and bought at a high price by King Candaules. Many other important Greek historical paintings are mentioned by Pausanias and earlier writers. The Pompeian mosaic of the defeat of the Persians by Alexander is probably a Romanized copy from some celebrated Greek painting; it obviously was not designed for mosaic work. Landscape painting appears to have been unknown among the Greeks, even as a background to figure-subjects. The poems especially of Homer and Sophocles show that this was not through want of appreciation of the beauties of nature, but partly, probably, because the main object of Greek painting was to tell some definite story, and also from their just sense of artistic fitness, which prevented them from attempting in their mural decorations to disguise the flat solidity of the walls by delusive effects of aerial perspective and distance. It is interesting to note that even in the time of Alexander the Great the somewhat archaic works of the earlier painters were still appreciated. In particular Aristotle praises Polygnotus, * Pliny's remarks on subjects such as this should be received with caution. He was neither a scientific archaeologist nor a practical artist. s So also a meaning unlike ours is attached to Greek technical words — by rivm they meant, not " tone," but the gradations of light and shade, and by ApiMty/i the relations of colour. See Pliny, H. N. xxxv. 5 ; and Ruskin, Mod. Painters, pt. iv. cap. 13. 22 MURAL DECORATION both for his power of combining truth with idealization in his portraits and for his skill in depicting men's mental characteristics; on this account he calls him 6 i70o7Pos. Lucian too praises Polygnotus alike for his grace, drawing and colouring. Later painters, such as Zeuxis and Apelles, appear to have produced easel pictures more than mural paintings, and these, being easy to move, were mostly carried off to Rome by the early emperors. Hence Pausanias, who visited Greece in the time of Hadrian, mentions but few works of the later artists. Owing to the lack of existing specimens of Greek painting it would be idle to attempt an account of their technical methods, but no doubt those employed by the Romans described below were derived with the rest of their art from the Greeks. Speaking of their stucco, Pliny refers its superiority over that made by the Romans to the fact that it was always made of lime at least three years old, and that it was well mixed and pounded in a mortar before being laid on the wall; he is here speaking of the thick stucco in many coats, not of the thin skin mentioned above as being laid on marble. Greek mural painting, like their sculpture, was chiefly used to decorate temples and public buildings, and comparatively rarely either for tombs1 or private buildings— at least in the days of their early republican simplicity. A large number of Roman mural paintings (see also ROMAN ART) now exist, of which many were discovered in the private houses and baths of Pompeii, nearly all dating Painting, between A.D. 63, when the city was ruined by an earthquake, and A.D. 79, when it was buried by Vesuvius. A catalogue of these and similar paintings from Hercu- laneum and Stabiae, compiled by Professor Helbig, comprises 1 966 specimens. The excavations in the baths of Titus and other ancient buildings in Rome, made in the early part of the i6th century, excited the keenest interest and admiration among the painters of that time, and largely influenced the later art of the Renaissance. These paintings, especially the " grotesques " or fanciful patterns of scroll-work and pilasters mixed with semi-realistic foliage and figures of boys, animals and birds, designed with great freedom of touch and inventive power, seem to have fascinated Raphael during his later period, and many of his pupils and contemporaries. The " loggie " of the Vatican and of the Farnesina palace are full of carefully studied 16th-century reproductions of these highly decorative paintings. The excavations in Rome have brought to light some mural paintings of the ist century A.D., perhaps superior in execution even to the best of the Pompeian series (see Plate). The range of subjects found in Roman mural paintings is large — mythology, religious ceremonies, genre, still life and even landscape (the latter generally on a small scale, and treated in an artificial and purely decorative way), and lastly history. Pliny mentions several large and important historical paintings, such as those with which Valerius Maximus Messala decorated the walls of the Curia Hostilia, to commemorate his own victory over Hiero II. and the Carthaginians in Sicily in the 3rd century B.C. The earliest Roman painting recorded by Pliny was by Fabius, surnamed Pictor, on the walls of the temple of Salus, executed about 300 B.C. (H.N. xxxv. 4). Pliny (xxxv. i) laments the fact that the wealthy Romans of his time preferred the costly splendours of marble and por- phyry wall-linings to the more artistic decoration of paintings by good artists. Historical painting seems then to have gone out of fashion; among the numerous specimens now existing few from Pompeii represent historical subjects; one has the scene of Massinissa and Sophonisba before Scipio, and another of a riot between the people of Pompeii and Nocera, which happened 59 A.D. Mythological scenes, chiefly from Greek sources, occur most frequently: the myths of Eros and Dionysus are especial favourites. Only five or six relate to purely Roman mythology. 1 One instance only of a tomb-painting is mentioned by Pausanias (vii. 22). Some fine specimens have been discovered in the Crimea, but not of a very early date; see Stephani, Compte rendu, &c., (St Petersburg, 1878), &c. We have reason to think that some at least of the Pompeian pictures are copies, probably at third or fourth hand, from celebrated Greek originals. The frequently repeated subjects of Medea meditating the murder of her children and Iphigenia at the shrine of the Tauric Artemis suggest that the motive and composition were taken from the originals of these subjects by Timanthes. Those of lo and Argus, the finest example of which is in the Palatine " villa of Livia " and of Andromeda and Perseus, often repeated on Pompeian walls, may be from the originals by Nicias. In many cases these mural paintings are of high artistic merit, though they are probably not the work of the most distinguished painters of the time, but rather of a humbler class of decorators, who reproduced, without much original invention, stock designs out of some pattern-book. They are, however, all remarkable for the rapid skill and extreme " verve " and freedom of hand with which the designs are, as it were, flung on to the walls with few but effective touches. Though in some cases the motive and composition are superior to the execution, yet many of the paintings are remarkable both for their realistic truth and technical skill. The great painting of Ceres from Pompeii, now in the Naples Museum, is a work of the highest merit. In the usual scheme of decoration the broad wall-surfaces are broken up into a series of panels by pilasters, columns, or other architectural forms. Some of the panels contain pictures with figure-subjects; others have conventional ornament, or hanging festoons of fruit and flowers. The lower part of the wall is painted one plain colour, forming a dado; the upper part some- times has a well-designed frieze of flowing ornaments. In the better class of painted walls the whole is kept flat in treatment, and is free from too great subdivision, but in many cases great want of taste is shown by the introduction of violent effects of architectural perspective, and the space is broken up by ccm- plicated schemes of design, studded with pictures in varying scales which have little relation to their surroundings. The colouring is on the whole pleasant and harmonious — unlike the usual chromo-lithographic copies. Black, yellow, or a rich deep red are the favourite colours for the main ground of the walls, the pictures in the panels being treated separately, each with its own background. An interesting series of early Christian mural paintings exists in various catacombs, especially those of Rome and Naples. They are of value both as an important link in the Egrly history of art and also as throwing light on the Christian mental state of the early Christians, which was dis- Painting la tinctly influenced by the older faith. Thus in the ltaly' earlier paintings of about the 4th century we find Christ repre- sented as a beardless youth, beautiful as the artist could make him, with a lingering tradition of Greek idealization, in no degree like the " Man of Sorrows " of medieval painters, but rather a kind of genius of Christianity in whose fair outward form the peace and purity of the new faith were visibly symbolized, just as certain distinct attributes were typified in the persons of the gods of ancient Greece. The favourite early subject, " Christ the Good Shepherd " (fig. 8), is represented as Orpheus playing on his lyre to a circle of beasts, the pagan origin of the picture being shown by the Phrygian cap and by the presence of lions, panthers and other incongruous animals among the listen- ing sheep. In other cases Christ is depicted standing with a sheep borne on His shoulders like Hermes Criophoros or Hermes Psychopompos — favourite Greek subjects, especially the former, a statue of which Pausanias (ix. 22) mentions as existing at Tanagra in Boeotia. Here again the pagan origin of the type is shown by the presence in the catacomb paintings of the pan- pipes and pedum, special attributes of Hermes, but quite foreign to the notion of Christ. Though in a degraded form, a good deal survives in some of these paintings, especially in the earlier ones, of the old classical grace of composition and beauty of drawing, notably in the above-mentioned representations where old models were copied without any adaptation to their new meaning. Those of the sth and 6th centuries follow the classical MURAL DECORATION A WALL PAINTING IN THE MUSEO NAZIONALE. AT ROME, FROM A ROMAN VILLA DISCOVERED IN 1878, EARLY IMPERIAL STYLE MURAL DECORATION lines, though in a rapidly deteriorating style, until the introduc- tion of a foreign — the Byzantine — element, which created a fresh starting-point on different lines. The old naturalism and survival of classical freedom of drawing is replaced by stiff, conventionally hieratic types, superior in dignity and strength to the feeble compositions produced by the degradation into which the native art of Rome had fallen. The designs of this second period of Christian art are similar to those of the mosaics, FIG. 8. — Painted Vault from the Catacombs of St.Callixtus, Rome. In the centre Orpheus, to represent Christ the Good Shepherd, and round are smaller paintings of various types of Christ. such as many at Ravenna, and also to the magnificently illumi- nated MSS. For some centuries there was little change or development in this Byzantine style of art, so that it is impossible in most cases to be sure from internal evidence of the date of any painting. This to some extent applies also to the works of the earlier or pagan school, though, roughly speaking, it may be said that the least meritorious pictures are the latest in date. These catacomb paintings range over a long space of time; some may possibly be of the ist or 2nd century, e.g. those in the cemetery of Domitilla, Rome; others are as late as the oth century, e.g. some full-length figures of St Cornelius and St Cyprian in the catacomb of St Callixtus, under which earlier paintings may be traced. In execution they somewhat resemble the Etruscan tomb-paintings; the walls of the catacomb passages and chambers, excavated in soft tufa, are covered with a thin skin of white stucco, and on that the mural and ceiling paintings are simply executed in earth colours. The favourite subjects of the earliest paintings are scenes from the Old Testament which were supposed to typify events in the life of Christ, such as the sacrifice of Isaac (Christ's death), Jonah and the whale (the Resurrection), Moses striking the rock, or pointing to the manna (Christ the water of life, and the Eucharist), and many others. The later paintings deal more with later subjects, either events in Christ's life or figures of saints and the miracles they performed. A fine series of these exists in the iower church of S. Clemente in Rome, apparently dating from the 6th to the loth centuries; among these are representations of the passion and death of Christ — subjects never chosen by the earlier Christians, except as dimly foreshadowed by the Old Testament types. When Christ Himself is depicted in the early catacomb paintings it is in glory and power, not in His human weakness and suffering. Other early Italian paintings exist on the walls of the church of the Tre Fontane near Rome, and in the Capella di S. Urbano alia Caffarella, executed in the early part of the nth century. The atrium of S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, Rome, and the church of the Quattro Santi Incoronati have mural paintings of the first half of the I3th century, which show no artistic improve- ment over those at S. Clemente four or five centuries older. It was not in fact till the second half cf the I3th century that stiff traditional Byzantine forms and colouring began to be superseded by the revival of native art in Italy by the painters of Florence, Pisa and Siena. During the fiist thirteen centuries of the Christian era mural painting appears to have been for the most part confined to the repre- sentation of sacred subjects. It is remarkable that during the earlier centuries council after council of the Christian Church forbade the painting of figure-subjects, and especially those of any Person of the Trinity; but in vain. In spite of the zeal of bishops and others, who sometimes with their own hands defaced the pictures of Christ on the walls of the churches, in spite of threats of excommunication, the for- bidden paintings by degrees became more numerous, till the walls of almost every church throughout Christendom were decorated with whole series of pictured stories. The useless prohibition was becoming obsolete when, towards the end of the 4th century, the learned Paulinus, bishop of Nola, ordered the two basilicas which he had built at Fondi and Nola to be adorned with wall- paintings of sacred subjects, with the special object, as he says, of instructing and refining the ignorant and drunken people. These painted histories were in fact the books of the unlearned, and we can now hardly realize their value as the chief mode of religious teaching in ages when none but the clergy could read or write. During the middle ages, just as long before among the ancient Greeks, coloured decoration was used in the widest possible manner not only for the adornment of flat walls, English but also for the enrichment of sculpture and all the Mural fittings and architectural features of buildings, P'fattag. whether the material to be painted was plaster, stone, marble or wood. It was only the damp and frosts of northern climates that to some extent limited the external use of colour to the less exposed parts of the outsides of buildings. The varying tints and texture of smoothly worked stone appear to have given no pleasure to the medieval eye; and in the rare cases in which the poverty of some country church prevented its walls from being adorned with painted ornaments or pictures the whole surface of the stonework inside, mouldings and carving as well as flat wall-spaces, was covered with a thin coat of whitewash. Internal rough stonework was invariably concealed by stucco, forming a smooth ground for possible future paintings. Un- happily a great proportion of mural paintings have been de- stroyed, though many in a more or less mutilated state still exist in England. It is difficult (and doubly so since the so-called " restoration " of most old buildings) to realize the splendour of effect once possessed by every important medieval church. From the tiled floor to the roof all was one mass of gold and colour. The brilliance of the mural paintings and richly coloured sculpture and mouldings was in harmony with the splendour of the oak-work — screens, stalls, and roofs — all decorated with gilding and painting, while the light, passing through stained glass, softened and helped to combine the whole into one mass of decorative effect. Colour was boldly applied everywhere, and thus the patchy effect was avoided which is so often the result of the modern timid and partial use of painted ornament. Even the figure-sculpture was painted in a strong and realistic manner, sometimes by a wax encaustic process, probably the same as the circumlitio of classical times. In the accounts for expenses in decorating Orvieto cathedral wax is a frequent item among the materials used for painting. In one place it is mentioned that wax was supplied to Andrea Pisano (in 1345) for the decoration of the beautiful reliefs in white marble on the lower part of the west front. From the nth to the i6th century the lower part of the walls, generally 6 to 8 ft. from the floor, was painted with a dado — the favourite patterns till the I3th century being either a sort of sham masonry with a flower in each rectangular space (fig. 9), or a conventional representation of a curtain with 24 iegula.1 folds stiffly treated, pictures with figure-subjects MURAL DECORATION FIG. 9. — Wall-Paintingof the I3th century. " Masonry pattern." Above this dado ranges of were painted in tiers one above the other, each picture frequently surrounded by a painted frame with arch and gable of architectural design. Painted bands of chevron or other geometrical ornament till the I3th century, and flowing ornament afterwards, usually divide the tiers of pic- tures horizontally and form the top and bottom boundaries of the dado. In the case of a church, the end walls usually have figures to a larger scale. On the east wall of the nave over the chancel arch there was generally a large painting of the " Doom " or Last Judgment. One of the commonest subjects is a colossal figure of St Chris- topher (fig. 10) usually on the nave wail opposite the principal FIG. 10. — Wall-Painting of St Christopher. (Large life-size.) entrance — selected because the sight of a picture of this saint was supposed to bring good luck for the rest of the day. Figures were also often painted on the jambs of the windows and on the piers and soffit of the arches, especially that opening into the chancel. The little Norman church at Kempley in Gloucestershire (date about noo) has perhaps the best-preserved specimen of the com- plete early decoration of a chancel.1 The north and south walls are occupied by figures of the twelve apostles in architectural niches, six on each side. The east wall had single figures of saints at the sides of the central window, and the stone barrel vault is covered with a representation of St John's apocalyptic vision — Christ in majesty surrounded by the evangelistic beasts, the seven candlesticks and other figures. The chancel arch itself and the jambs and mouldings of the windows have stiff geometrical designs, and over the arch, towards the nave, is a large picture of the " Doom." The whole scheme is very complete, no part of the internal plaster or stonework being undecorated with colour. Though the drawing is rude, the figures and their drapery are treated broadly and with dignity. Simple earth colours are used, painted in tempera on a plain white ground, which covers alike both the plaster of the rough walls and the smooth stone of the arches and jambs. In the I3th century the painters of England reached a high point of artistic power and technical skill, so that paintings were produced by native artists equal, if not superior, to those of the same period anywhere on the Continent. The central paintings on the walls of the chapter-house and on the retable of the high altar of Westminster Abbey are not surpassed by 1 See Archoeologia, vol. xlvi. (1880). any of the smaller works even of such men as Cimabue and Duccio di Buoninsegna, who were living when these Westminster paintings were executed. Unhappily, partly through the poverty and anarchy brought about by the French wars and the Wars of the Roses, the development of art in England made little progress after the beginning of the I4th century, and it FIG. 1 1 . — i sth-century English Painting — St John the Evangelist. was not till a time when the renaissance of art in Italy had fallen into decay that its influence reached the British shores. In the 1 5th century some beautiful work, somewhat affected by Flemish influence, was produced in England (fig. n), chiefly in the form of figures painted on the oak panels of chancel and chapel screens, especially in Norfolk and Suffolk; but these cannot be said to rival the works of the Van Eycks and other painters of that time in Flanders. To return to the i^th century, the culminating period of English art in painting and sculpture, much was owed to Henry III.'s love for and patronage of the fine arts; he employed a large number of painters to decorate his various castles and palaces, especially the palace of Westminster, one large hall of which was known as the " painted MURAL DECORATION chamber " from the rovvs of fine pictures with which its walls were covered. After the i3th century the " masonry pattern " was disused for the lower parts of walls, and the chevrony and other stiff patterns for the borders were replaced by more flowing designs. The character of the painted figures became less monumental in style; greater freedom of drawing and treatment was adopted, and they cease to recall the archaic majesty and grandeur of the Byzantine mosaics. It may be noted that during the I4th century wall-spaces unoccupied by figure-subjects were often covered by graceful flowing patterns, drawn with great freedom and rather avoiding geo- metrical repetition. Fig. 12, from the church of Stanley St Leonard's, Gloucestershire, is a good character- istic specimen of 14th-century decora- tion; it is on the walls of the chancel, filling up the spaces between the painted figures; the flowers are blue, and the lines red on a white ground. In some cases the motive of the design is taken from encaustic tiles, : » * Bengeo Church, Herts, where tne waU ls divided into squares, each containing an heraldic lion. This imitative notion occurs during all periods — masonry, hanging curtains, tiles and architectural features such as niches and canopies being very frequently represented, though always in a simple decorative fashion with no attempt at actual deception — not probably from any fixed principle that shams were wrong, but because the good taste of the medieval painters taught them that a flat unrealistic treatment gave the best and most decorative effect. Thus in the isth and 1 6th centuries the commonest forms of unpictorial wall- decoration were various patterns taken from the beautiful damasks and cut velvets of Sicily, Florence, Genoa and other places in Italy, some form of the " pine-apple " or rather " arti- choke " pattern being the favourite (fig. 13), a design which, tury Wall-Painting. FIG. 13. — 15th-century Wall-Painting, taken from a Genoese or Florentine velvet design. developed partly from Oriental sources, and coming to perfection at the end of the i$th century, was copied and reproduced in textiles, printed stuffs and wall-papers with but little change down to the present century — a remarkable instance of survival in design. Fig. 14 is a specimen of isth-century English decora- tive painting, copied from a 14th-century Sicilian silk damask. Diapers, powderings with flowers, . sacred monograms and sprays of blossom were frequently used to ornament large surfaces in a simple way. Many of these are extremely beautiful (fig. IS)- Subjects of Medieval Wall- Paintings. — In churches and domestic buildings alike the usual subjects represented on the walls were specially selected for their moral and religious teaching, either FIG. 14. — 15th-century Wall-Painting, the design copied from a 13th-century Sicilian silk damask. stories from the Bible and Apocrypha, or from the lives of saints, or, lastly, symbolical representations setting forth some important theological truth, such as figures of virtues and vices, or the Scala humanae salyationis, showing the. perils and temptations of the human soul in its struggle to escape hell and gain paradise — a rude foreshadowing of the great scheme worked out with such perfection by Dante in his Commedia. A fine example of this subject exists on the walls of Chaldon church, Surrey.1 In the selection of saints for paintings in England, those of English origin are naturally most frequently represented, and different districts had certain local favourites. St Thomas of Canterbury was one of the most widely popular; but few examples now remain, owing to Henry VIII.'s special dislike to this saint and the strict orders that were issued for all pictures of him to be destroyed. For a similar reason most paintings of saintly popes were obliterated. Methods of Execution. — Though Eraclius, who probably wrote before the loth century, mentions the use of an oil-medium, yet till about the I3th century mural paintings appear to have been exe- cuted in the most simple FlG i5._powderings used in i5th- way, in tempera mainly century Wall Painting, with earth colours applied on dry stucco; even when a smooth stone surface was to be painted a thin coat of whitening or fine gesso was laid as a ground. In the 131(1 century, and perhaps earlier, oil was com- monly used both as a medium for the pigments and also to make a varnish to cover and fix tempera paintings. The Van Eycks introduced the use of dryers of a better kind than had yet been used, and so largely extended the application of oil-painting. Before their time it seems to have been the custom to dry wall- paintings laboriously by the use of charcoal braziers, if they were in a position where the sun could not shine upon them. This is 'See Collections of Surrey Archaeol. Soc. vol. v. pt. ii. (1871). 26 MURANO specially recorded in the valuable series of accounts for the expenses of wall-paintings in the royal palace of Westminster during the reign of Henry III., printed in Vetusta monumenta, vol. vi. (1842). All the materials used, including charcoal to dry the paintings and the wages paid to the artists, are given. The materials mentioned are plumbum album el rubeum, viridus, vermilio, synople, acre, azura, aurum, argentum, collis, oleum, vernix. Two foreign painters were employed — Peter of Spain and William of Florence — at sixpence a day, but the English painters seem to FIG. 16. — Pattern in Stamped and Moulded Plaster, decorated with gilding and transparent colours; 15th-century work. (Full size.) have done most of the work and received higher pay. William, an English monk in the adjoining Benedictine abbey of West- minster, received two shillings "a day. Walter of Durham and various members of the Otho family, royal goldsmiths and moneyers, worked for many years on the adornment of Henry III.'s palace and were well paid for their skill. Some fragments of paintings from the royal chapel of St Stephen are now in the British Museum. They are delicate and carefully painted subjects from the Old Testament, in rich colours, each with explanatory inscrip- tion underneath. The scale is small, the figures being scarcely a foot high. Their method of execution is curious. First the smooth stone wall was covered with a coat of red, painted in oil, probably to keep back the damp; on that a thin skin of fine gesso (stucco) has been applied, and the outlines of the figures marked with a point; the whole of the background, crowns, borders of dresses, and other ornamental parts have then been modelled and stamped with very minute patterns in slight relief, impressed on the surface of the gesso while it was yet soft. The figures have then been painted, apparently in tempera, gold leaf has been applied to the stamped reliefs, and the whole has been covered with an oil varnish. It is difficult to realize the labour required to cover large halls such as the above chapel and the " painted chamber," the latter about 83 ft. by 27 ft., with this style of decoration. In many cases the grounds were entirely covered with shining .metal leaf, over which the paintings were executed; those parts, such as the draperies, where the metallic lustre was wanted, were painted in oil with transparent colours, while the flesh was painted in opaque tempera. The effect of the bright metal shining through the rich colouring is magnificent. This minuteness of much of the medieval wall-decoration is remarkable. Large wall-surfaces and intricate mouldings were often completely covered by elaborate gesso patterns in relief of almost microscopic delicacy (fig. 1 6). The cost of stamps for this is among the items in the Westminster accounts. These patterns when set and dry were further adorned with gold and colours. So also with the architectural painting; the artist was not content simply to pick out the various members of the mouldings in different colours, but he also frequently covered each bead or fillet with painted flowers and other patterns, as delicate as those in an illuminated MS. — so minute and highly- finished that they are almost invisible at a little distance, but yet add greatly to the general richness of effect. All this is neglected in modern reproductions of medieval painting, in which both touch and colour are coarse and harsh — caricatures of the old work, such as disfigure the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, and many cathedrals in France, Germany and England. Gold was never used in large quantities without the ground on which it was laid being broken up by some such delicate reliefs as that shown in fig. 16, so its effect was never dazzling, (W. Mo.; J. H. M.) Mural painting in England fell into disuse in the i6th century, until attempts to revive it were made in the igth century. For domestic purposes wood panelling, stamped leather, and tapestry were chiefly used as wall-coverings. In the reign of Henry VIII., probably in part through Holbein's influence, a rather coarse tempera wall-painting, German in style, appears to have been common.1 A good example of arabesque painting of this period in black and white, rudely though boldly drawn and Holbeinesquein character, was discovered in 1881 behind the panelling in one of the canons' houses at Westminster. Other examples exist at Haddon Hall (Derbyshire) and elsewhere. Many efforts have been made in England to revive fresco painting. The Houses of Parliament bear witness to this, the principal works there being those of William Dyce and Daniel Maclise. That of G. F. Watts, whose easel work also is generally distinguished by its mural feeling, is full of serious purpose and dignity of conception. " Buono fresco " (the painting in tempera upon a freshly laid ground of plaster while wet), " spirit fresco " or Gambier-Parry method (the painting with a spirit medium upon a specially prepared plaster or canvas ground 2) , and "water- glass " painting (wherein the method is similar to water-colour painting on a prepared plastered wall, the painting when finished being covered with a chemical solution which hardens and protects the surface), have all been tried. Other processes are also in the experimental stage, such as that known as Keim's, which has been successfully tried by Mrs Merritt in a series of mural paintings in a church at Chilworth. Unless, however, some means can be found of enabling the actual painted wall to resist the natural dampness of the English climate, it does not seem likely that true fresco painting can ever be naturalized in Great Britain. Of two of the few modern artists entrusted with important mural work in England, Ford Madox Brown and Frederick J. Shields, the former distinguished especially for his fine series of mural paintings in the Manchester town-hall, in the later paintings there adopted the modern method of painting the design upon canvas in flat oil colour, using a wax medium, and afterwards affixing the canvas to the wall by means of white lead. This is a usual method with modern decorators. Mr Shields has painted the panels of his scheme of mural decoration in the chapel of the Ascension at Bayswater, London, also upon canvas in oils, and has adopted the method of fixing them to slabs of slate facing the waD so as to avoid the risk of damp from the wall itself. Friezes and frieze panels or ceilings in private houses are usually painted upon canvas in oil and affixed to the wall or inserted upon their strainers, like pictures in a frame. (Walter Crane has used fibrous plaster panels, painting in ordinary oil colours with turpentine as a medium, as in Redcross Hall.) Recently there has been a revival of tempera painting, and a group of painters are producing works on panel and canvas painted in tempera or fresco secco, with yolk of egg as a medium, according to the practice of the early Italian painters and the directions of Cennino Cennini. A pure luminous quality of colour is produced, valuable in mural decoration and also- durable, especially under varnish. (W. CR.) MURANO (anc. Ammariuno), an island in the Venetian lagoon abouj i m. north of Venice. It is 5 m. in circumference, and a large part of it is occupied by gardens. It contained 5436 inhabitants in 1901, but was once much more populous than it is at present, its inhabitants numbering 30,000. It was a favourite resort of the Venetian nobility before they began to build their villas on the mainland; land in the isth and i6th centuries its gardens and casinos, of which some traces remain, were famous. It was here that the literary clubs of the Vigilanti, the Studiosi and the Occulti, used to meet. 'Shakespeare, Henry IV., Part. II. act n. sc. i: " Falstaff. And for thy walls, a pretty slight drollery, or the story of the prodigal, or the German hunting in waterwork, is worth a thousand of these bed-hangings and these fly-bitten tapestries." 1 It was in this method that the lunettes by Lord Leighton at the Victoria and Albert Museum were painted on the plaster wall. The same painter produced a fresco at Lyndhurst Church, Hants. MURAS— MURAT 27 The town is built upon one broad main canal, where the tidal current runs with great force, and upon several smaller ones. The cathedral, S. Donato, is a fine basilica, of the izth century. The pavement (of mi) is as richly inlaid as that of St Mark's, and the mosaics cf the tribune are remarkable. The exterior of the tribune is beautiful, and has been successfully restored. The church of St Peter the Martyr (1509) contains a fine picture by Gentile Bellini and other works, and S. Maria degli Angeli also contains several interesting pictures. Murano has from ancient times been celebrated for its glass manufactories. When and how the art was introduced is obscure, but there are notices of it as early as the nth century; and in 1250 Christo- foro Briani attempted the imitation of agate and chalcedony. From the labours of his pupil Miotto sprang that branch of the glass trade which is concerned with the imitation of gems. In the 1 5th century the first crystals were made, and in the 1 7th the various gradations of coloured and iridescent glass were invented, together with the composition called " aventu- rine "; the manufacture of beads is now a main branch of the trade. The art of the glass-workers was taken under the protection of the Government in 1275, and regulated by a special code of laws and privileges; two fairs were held annually, and the export of all materials, such as alum and sand, which enter into the composition of glass was absolutely forbidden. With the decay of Venice the importance of the Murano glass-works declined; but A. Salviati (1816-1890) rediscovered many of the old processes, and eight firms are engaged in the trade, the most renewed being the Venezia Murano Company and Salviati. The municipal museum contains a collection of glass illustrating the history and progress of the art. The island of Murano was first peopled by the inhabitants of Altino. It originally enjoyed independence under the rule of its tribunes and judges, and was one of the twelve confederate islands of the lagoons. In the i2th century the doge Vital Micheli II. incorporated Murano in Venice and attached it to the Sestiere of S. Croce. From that date it was governed by a Venetian nobleman with the title of podesta whose office lasted sixteen months. Murano, however, retained its original constitution of a greater and a lesser council for the transaction of municipal business, and also the right to coin gold and silver as well as its judicial powers. The interests of the town were watched at the ducal palace by a nuncio and a solicitor; and this constitution remained in force till the fall of the republic. See Venezia e le sue Lagune; Paoletti, II Fiore di Venezia; Bus- solin, Guida alle fabbriche vetrarie di Murano; Romania, Storia documentata di Venezia, i. 41. MURAS, a tribe of South-American Indians living on the Amazon, from the Madeira to the Purus. Formerly a powerful people, they were defeated by their neighbours the Mundrucus in 1788. They are now partly civilized. Each village has a chief whose office is hereditary, but he has little power. The Muras are among the lowest of all Amazonian tribes. MURAT, JOACHIM (1767-1815), king of Naples, younger son of an innkeeper at La Bastide-Fortuniere in the department of Lot, France, was born on the 25th of March 1767. Destined for the priesthood, he obtained a bursary at the college of Cahors, proceeding afterwards to the university of Toulouse, Tjhere he studied canon law. His vocation, however, was certainly not sacerdotal, and after dissipating his money he enlisted in a cavalry regiment. In 1789 he had attained the rank of martchal des logis, but in 1790 he was dismissed the regiment for in- subordination. After a period of idleness, he was enrolled, through the good offices of J. B. Cavaignac, in the new Constitu- tional Guard of Louis XVI. (1791). In Paris he gained a reputa- tion for his good looks, his swaggering attitude, and the violence of his revolutionary sentiments. On the 3Oth of May 1792, the guard having been disbanded, he was appointed sub-lieutenant in the 2ist Chasseurs a cheval, with which regiment he served in the Argonne and the Pyrenees, obtaining in the latter campaign the command of a squadron. After the gth Thermidor, however, and the proscription of the Jacobins, with whom he had conspicuously identified himself, he fell under suspicion and was recalled from the front. Returning to Paris (1795), he made the acquaintance of Napoleon Bonaparte, another young officer out of employment, who soon gained a complete ascendancy over his vain, ambitious and unstable nature. On the I3th Vendemiaire, when Bonaparte, commissioned by Barras, beat down with cannon the armed insurrection of the Paris sections against the Convention, Murat was his most active and courageous lieutenant, and was rewarded by the lieutenant-colonelcy of the 2 ist Chasseurs and the appoint- ment of first aide de camp to General Bonaparte in Italy. In the first battles of the famous campaign of 1796 Murat so distinguished himself that he was chosen to carry the captured flags to Paris. He was promoted to be general of brigade, and returned to Italy in time to be of essential service to Bonaparte at Bassano, Corona and Fort St Giorgio, where he was wounded. He was then sent on a diplomatic mission to Genoa, but returned in time to be present at Rivoli. In the advance into Tirol in the summer of 1797 he commanded the vanguard, and by his passage of the Tagliamento hurried on the preliminaries of Leoben. In 1798 he was for a short time commandant at Rome, and then accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. At the battle of the Pyramids he led his first famous cavalry charge, and so distinguished himself in Syria that he was made general of division (October, 1 799). He returned to France with Bonaparte, and on the i8th Brumaire led into the orangery of Saint Cloud the sixty grenadiers whose appearance broke up the Council of Five Hundred. After the success of the coup d'ttat he was made commandant of the consular guard, and on the 2oth of January 1800 he married Caroline Bonaparte, youngest sister of the first consul. He commanded the French cavalry at the battle of Marengo, and was afterwards made governor in the Cisalpine Republic. As commander of the army of observa- tion in Tuscany he forced the Neapolitans to evacuate the Papal States and to accept the treaty of Florence (March 28, 1801). In January 1804 he was given the post of governor of Paris, and in this capacity appointed the military commission by which the due d'Enghien was tried and shot (March 20); in May he was made marshal of the empire; in February 1805 he was made grand admiral, with the title of prince, and invested with the grand eagle of the Legion of Honour. He commanded the cavalry of the Grand Army in the German campaign of 1805, and was sc conspicuous at Austerlitz that Napoleon made him grand duke of Berg and Cleves (March 15, 1806). He com- manded the cavalry at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, and in 1808 was made general-in-chief of the French aimies in Spain. He entered Madrid on the 25th of March, and on the 2nd of May suppressed an insurrection in the city. He did much to prepare the events which ended in the abdication of Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. at Bayonne; but the hopes he had cherished of himself receiving the crown of Spain were disappointed. On the ist of August, however, he was appointed by Napoleon to the throne of Naples, vacated by the transference of Joseph Bonaparte to Spain. King Joachim Napoleon, as he styled himself, entered Naples in September, his handsome presence and open manner gaining him instantaneous popularity. Almost his first act as king was to attack Capri, which he wrested from the British; but, this done, he returned to Naples and devoted himself to establish- ing his kingship according to his ideas, a characteristic blend of the vulgarity of a fdnenu with the essential principles of the Revolution. He dazzled the lazzaroni with' the extravagant splendour of his costumes; he set up a sumptuous court, created a new nobility, nominated marshals. With an eye to the over- throw of his legitimate rival in Sicily, he organized a large army and even a fleet; but he also swept away the last relics of the effete feudal system and took efficient measures for suppressing brigandage. From the first his relations with Napoleon were strained. The emperor upbraided him sarcastically for his " monkey tricks " (singeries); Murat ascribed to the deliberate ill-will of the French generals who served with him, and even to Napoleon, the failure of his attack on Sicily in 1810. He resented MURAT his subordination to the emperor, and early began his pose as an Italian king by demanding the withdrawal of the French troops from Naples and naturalization as Neapolitans of all Frenchmen in the service of the state (1811). Napoleon, of course, met this demand with a curt refusal. A breach between the brothers- in-law was only averted by the Russian campaign of 1812 and Napoleon's invitation to Murat to take command of the cavalry in the Grand Army. This was a call which appealed to all his strongest military instincts, and he obeyed it. During the disastrous retreat he showed his usual headstrong courage; but in the middle of December he suddenly threw up his command and returned to Naples. The reason of this was the suspicion, which had been growing on him for two years past, that Napoleon was preparing for him the fate of the king of Holland, and that his own wife, Queen Caroline, was plotting with the emperor for his dethronement. To Marshal Davout, who pointed out to him that he was only king of Naples " by grace of the emperor and the blood of Frenchmen," he replied that he was king of Naples as the emperor of. Austria was emperor of Austria, and that he could do as he liked. He was, in fact, already dreaming of exchanging his position of a vassal king of the French Empire for that of a national Italian king. In the enthusiastic reception that awaited him on his return to Naples on the 4th of February there was nothing to dispel these illusions. All the Italian parties flocked round him, flattering and cajoling him: the patriots, because he seemed to them loyal and glorious enough to assume the task of Italian unification; the partisans of the dis- possessed princes, because they looked upon him as a convenient instrument and as simple enough to be made an easy dupe. From this moment dates the importance of Murat in the history of Europe during the next few years. He at once, without consulting his minister of foreign affairs, despatched Prince Cariati on a confidential mission to Vienna; if Austria would secure the renunciation of his rights by King Ferdinand and guarantee the possession of the kingdom of Naples to himself, he would place his army at her disposal and give up his claims to Sicily. Austria herself, however, had not as yet broken definitively with Napoleon, and before she openly joined the Grand Alliance, after the illusory congress of Prague, many things had happened to make Murat change his mind. He was offended by Napoleon's bitter letters and by tales of his slighting comments on himself; he was alarmed by the emperor's scarcely veiled threats; but after all he was a child of the Revolution and a born soldier, with all the soldier's instinct of loyalty to a great leader, and he grasped eagerly at any excuse for believing that Napoleon, in the event of victory, would maintain him on his throne. Then came the emperor's advance into Germany, supported as yet by his allies of the Rhenish Confederation. On the fatal field of Leipzig Murat once more faught on Napo- leon's side, leading the French squadrons with all his old valour and dash. But this crowning catastrophe was too much for his wavering faith. On the evening of the i6th of October, the first day of the battle, Metternich found means to open a separate negotiation with him: Great Britain and Austria would, in the event of Murat's withdrawal from Napoleon's army and refusal to send reinforcements to the viceroy of Italy, secure the cession to him of Naples by King Ferdinand, guarantee him in its possession, and obtain for him further advantages in Italy. To accept the Austrian advances seemed now his only chance of continuing to be a king. At Erfurt he asked and obtained the emperor's leave to return to Naples; " our adieux," he said, " were not over-cordial." He reached Naples on the 4th of November and at once informed the Austrian envoy of his wish to join the Allies, suggesting that the Papal States, with the exception of Rome and the surrounding district, should be made over to him as his reward. On the 3ist of December Count Neipperg, after- wards the lover of the empress Marie Louise, arrived at Naples with powers to treat. The result was the signature, on the nth of January 1814, of a treaty by which Austria guaranteed to Murat the throne of Naples and promised her good offices to secure the assent of the other Allies. Secret additional articles stipulated that Austria would use her good offices to secure the renunciation by Ferdinand of his rights to Naples, in return for an indemnity to hasten the conclusion of peace between Naples and Great Britain, and to augment the Neapolitan kingdom by territory embracing 400,000 souls at the expense of the states of the Church. The project of the treaty having been communicated to Castlereagh, he replied by expressing the willingness of the British government to conclude an armistice with " the person exercising the government of Naples " (Jan. 22), and this was accordingly signed on the 3rd of February by Bentinck. It was clear that Great Britain had no intention of ultimately recognizing Murat's right to reign. As for Austria, she would be certain that Murat's own folly would, sooner or later, give her an opportunity for repudiating her engagements. For the present the Neapolitan alliance would be invaluable to the Allies for the purpose of putting an end to the French dominion in Italy. The plot was all but spoilt by the prince royal of Sicily, who in an order of the day announced to his soldiers that their legitimate sovereign had not renounced his rights to the throne of Naples (Feb. 20); from the Austrian point of view it was compromised by a proclamation issued by Bentinck at Leghorn on the i4th of March, in which he called on the Italians to rise in support of the " great cause of their fatherland." From Dijon Castlereagh promptly wrote to Bentinck (April 3) to say that the proclamation of the prince of Sicily must be disavowed, and that if King Ferdinand did not behave properly Great Britain would recognize' Murat's title. A letter from Metternich to Marshal Bellegarde, of the same place and date, insisted that Bentinck 's operations must be altered; the last thing that Austria desired was an Italian national rising. It was, indeed, by this time clear to the allied powers that Murat's ambition had o'erleaped the bounds set for them. " Murat, a true son of the Revolution," wrote Metternich, in the same letter, " did not hesitate to form projects of con- quest when all his care should have been limited to simple calculations as to how to preserve his throne. ... He dreamed of a partition of Italy between him and us. ... When we refused to annex all Italy north of the Po, he saw that his calculations were wrong, but refused to abandon his ambitions. His attitude is most suspicious." " Press the restoration of the grand-duke in Tuscany," wrote Castlereagh to Bentinck; " this is the true touchstone of Murat's intentions. We must not suffer him to carry out his plan of extended dominion; but neither must we break with him and so abandon Austria to his augmented intrigues." Meanwhile, Murat had formally broken with Napoleon, and on the i6th of January the French envoy quitted Naples. But the treason by which he hoped to save his throne was to make its loss inevitable. He had betrayed Napoleon, only to be made the cat's-paw of the Allies. Great Britain, even when con- descending to negotiate with him, had never recognized his title; she could afford to humour Austria by holding out hopes of ultimate recognition, in order to detach him from Napoleon; for Austria alone of the Allies was committed to him, and Castle- reagh well knew that, when occasion should arise, her obliga- tions would not be suffered to hamper her interests. With the downfall of Napoleon Murat's defection had served its turn; moreover, his equivocal conduct during the campaign in Italy1 had blunted the edge of whatever gratitude the powers may have been disposed to feel; his ambition to unite all Italy south of the Po under his crown was manifest, and the statesmen responsible for the re-establishment of European order were little likely to do violence to their legitimist principles in order to maintain on his throne a revolutionary sovereign who was proving himself so potent a centre of national unrest. At the very opening of the congress of Vienna Talleyrand, with astounding effrontery, affected not to know " the man " 1 He had contributed to the defeats of the viceroy Prince Eugene in January and February 1814, but did not show any eagerness to press his victories to the advantage of the Allies, contenting himself with occupying the principality of Benevento. MURAT 29 who had been casually referred to as " the king of Naples "; and he made it the prime object of his policy in the weeks that followed to secure the repudiation by the powers of Murat's title, and the restoration of the Bourbon king. The powers, indeed, were very ready to accept at least the principle of this policy. " Great Britain," wrote Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool on the 3rd of September from Geneva, " has no objection, but the reverse, to the restoration of the Bourbons in Naples."1 Prussia saw in Murat the protector of the malcontents in Italy.2 Alexander I. of Russia had no sympathy for any champion of Liberalism in Italy save himself. Austria confessed " sub sigillo " that she shared " His Most Christian Majesty's views as to the restoration of ancient dynasties."3 The main difficul- ties in the way were Austria's treaty obligations and the means by which the desired result was to be obtained. Talleyrand knew well that Austria, in the long run, would break faith with Murat and prefer a docile Bourbon on the throne of Naples to this incalculable child of the Revolution; but he had his private reasons for desiring to " score off " Metternich, the continuance of whose quasidiplomatic liaison with Caroline Murat he rightly suspected. He proposed boldly that, since Austria, in view of the treaty of Jan. n, 1814, was naturally reluctant to undertake the task, the restored Bourbon king of France should be empowered to restore the Bourbon king of Naples by French arms, thus reviving once more the ancient Habsburg-Bourbon rivalry for dominion in Italy.4 Metternich, with characteristic skill, took advantage of this situation at once to checkmate France and to disembarrass Austria of its obligations to Murat. While secretly assuring Louis XVTII., through his confidant Blacas, that Austria was in favour of a Bourbon restoration in Naples, he formally intimated to Talleyrand that a French invasion of Italian soil would mean war with Austria.6 To Murat, who had appealed to the treaty of 1814, and demanded a passage northward for the troops destined to oppose those of Louis XVIII., he explained that Austria, by her ultimatum to France, had already done all that was necessary, that any movement of the Neapolitan troops outside Naples would be a useless breach of the peace of Italy, and that it would be regarded as an attack on Austria and a rupture of the alliance. Murat's suspicions of Austrian sincerity were now confirmed;6 he realized that there was no question now of his obtaining any extension of territory at the expense of the states of the Church, and that in the Italy as reconstructed at Vienna his own position would be intolerable. Thus the very motives which had led him to betray Napoleon now led him to break with Austria. He would secure his throne by proclaiming the cause of united Italy, chasing the Austrians 1 P.O. Vienna Congress, vii. 2 Mem. of Hardenberg, F.O. Cong. Pruss. Arch. 20. Aug. 14- June 15. 3 Metternich to Bombelles. Jan. 13, 1815, enclosed in Castle- reagh to Liverpool of Jan. 25. F.O. Congr. Vienna, xi. 4 Sorel, viii. 41 1 seq. ' Cf. a " most secret " communication to be made to M. de Blacas (in Metternich to Bombelles, Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). Murat's aggressive attitude, and the unrest in Italy, are largely due to the threatening attitude of France. . . . H.I.M. is not prepared to risk a rising of Italy under " the national flag." How will France coerce Naples? By sending an army into Italy across our states, which would thus become infected with revolutionary views? The emperor could not allow such an expedition. When Italy is settled— and we will not allow Murat to keep the Marches . . . he will lose prestige, and then . . . will be the time for Austria to give effect to the views which, all the time, she shares with His Most Christian Majesty." (In Castlereagh to Liverpool, " private," Jan. 25, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.) * That they were fully justified is clear from the following ex- tract from a letter of Metternich to Bombelles at Paris (dated Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). " Whether Joachim or a Bourbon reigns at Naples is for us a very subordinate question. . . . When Europe is established on solid foundations the fate of Joachim will no longer be problematical, but do not let us risk destroying Austria and France and Europe, in order to solve this question at the worst moment it would be put on the tapis. . . . This is no business of the Congress, but let the Bourbon Powers declare that they maintain their claims." (In Castlereagh's private letter to Lord Liverpool, Jan. 15, 1815, F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.) from the peninsula, and establishing himself as a national king. To contemporary observers in the best position to judge the enterprise seemed by no means hopeless. Lord William Bentinck, the commander of the English forces in Italy, wrote to Castlereagh 7 that, " having seen more of Italy," he doubted whether the whole force of Austria would be able to expel Murat; " he has said clearly that he will raise the whole of Italy; and there is not a doubt that under the standard of Italian indepen- dence the whole of Italy will rally." This feeling, continued Bentinck, was due to the foolish and illiberal conduct of the restored sovereigns; the inhabitants of the states occupied by the Austrian troops were " discontented to a man "; even in Tus- cany " the same feeling and desire " universally prevailed. All the provinces, moreover, were full of unemployed officers and soldiers who, in spite of Murat's treason, would rally to his standard, especially as he would certainly first put himself into communication with Napoleon in Elba; while, so far as Bentinck could hear of the disposition of the French army, it would be " dangerous to assemble it anywhere or for any purpose." The urgency of the danger was, then, fully realized by the powers even before Napoleon's return from Elba; for they were well aware of Murat's correspondence with him. On the first news of Napoleon's landing in France, the British government wrote to Wellington8 that this event together with " the proofs of Murat's treachery " had removed " all remaining scruples " on their part, and that they were now " prepared to enter into a concert for his removal," adding that Murat should, in the event of his resigning peaceably, receive " a pension and all considera- tion." The rapid triumph of Napoleon, however, altered this tone. " Bonaparte's successes have altered the situation," wrote Castlereagh to Wellington on the 24th, adding that Great Britain would enter into a treaty with Murat, if he would give guarantees " by a certain redistribution of his forces " and the like, and that in spite of Napoleon's success he would be " true to Europe." In a private letter enclosed Castlereagh suggested that Murat might send an auxiliary force to France, where " his personal presence would be unseemly."9 Clearly, had King Joachim played his cards well he had the game in his hands. But it was not in his nature to play them well. He should have made the most of the chastened temper of the Allies, either to secure favourable terms from them, or to hold them in play until Napoleon was ready to take the field. But his head had been turned by the flatteries of the " patriots"; he believed that all Italy would rally to his cause, and that alone he would be able to drive the " Germans " over the Alps, and thus, as king of united Italy, be in a position to treat on equal terms with Napoleon, should he prove victorious; and he determined to strike without delay. On the 23rd the news reached Metternich at Vienna that the Neapolitan troops were on the march to the frontier. The Allies at once decided to commission Austria to deal with Murat; in the event of whose defeat, Ferdinand IV. was to be restored to Naples, on promising a general amnesty and giving guarantees for a " reasonable " system of government.10 Meanwhile, in Naples itself there were signs enough that Murat's popularity had disappeared. In Calabria the indiscrimi- nate severity of General Manhes in suppressing brigandage had made the government hated; in the capital the general dis- affection had led to rigorous policing, while conscripts had to be dragged in chains to join their regiments.11 In these circum- stances an outburst of national enthusiasm for King Joachim was hardly to be expected; and the campaign in effect proved a complete fiasco. Rome and Bologna were, indeed, occupied with- out serious opposition; but on the I2th of April Murat's forces received a check from the advancing Austrians at Ferrara and on the 2nd of May were completely routed at Tolentino. The 7 Letter dated Florence, Jan. 7, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi. 8 F.O. Vienna Congr. xii., Draft to Wellington dated March 12. 9 F.O. Vienna Congr. xii. 10 Ibid. Wellington to Castlereagh, Vienna, March 25. u F.O. Cong. xi. ; Munster to Castlereagh, Naples, Jan. 22. MURATORI Austrians advanced on Naples, when Ferdinand IV. was duly restored, while Queen Caroline and her children were deported to Trieste. Murat himself escaped to France, where his offer of service was contemptuously refused by Napoleon. He hid for a while near Toulon, with a price upon his head; then, after Waterloo, refusing an asylum in England, he set out for Corsica (August). Here he was joined by a few rash spirits who urged him to attempt to recover his kingdom. Though Metternich offered to allow him to join his wife at Trieste and to secure him a dignified position and a pension, he preferred to risk all on a final throw for power. On the 28th of September he sailed for Calabria with a flotilla of six vessels carrying some 250 armed men. Four of his ships were scattered by a storm; one deserted him at the last moment, and on the 8th of October he landed at Pizzo with only 30 companions. Of the popular enthusiasm for his cause which he had been led to expect there was less than no sign, and after a short and unequal contest he was taken prisoner by a captain named Trenta-Capilli, whose brother had been executed by General Manhes. He was im- prisoned in the fort of Pizzo, and on the isth of October 1815 was tried by court-martial, under a law of his own, for disturbing the public peace, and was sentenced to be shot in half an hour. After writing a touching letter of farewell to his wife and children, he bravely met his fate, and was buried at Pizzo. Though much good may be said of Murat as a king sincerely anxious for the welfare of his adopted country, his most abiding title to fame is that of the most dashing cavalry leader of the age. As a man he was rash, hot-tempered and impetuously brave; he was adored by his troopers who followed their idol, the " golden eagle," into the most terrible fire and against the most terrible odds. Napoleon lived to regret his refusal to accept his services during the Hundred Days, declaring that Murat's presence at Waterloo would have given more con- centrated power to the cavalry charges and might possibly have changed defeat into victory. By his wife Maria Annunciata Carolina Murat had two sons. The elder, NAPOLEON ACHII.LE MURAT (1801-1847), during his father's reign prince royal of the Two Sicilies, emigrated about 1821 to America, and settled near Tallahassee, Florida, where in 1826-1838 he was postmaster. In 1826 he married a great-niece of Washington. He published Lettres d'un citoyen des Etats-Unis A un de ses amis d Europe (Paris, 1830); Esquisse morale et politique des Etats-Unis (ibid. 1832); and Exposition des principes du gouiiernement ripublicain lei qu'il a ete perfectionni en Amerique (ibid. 1833). He died in Florida on the isth of April 1847- The second son, NAPOLEON LUCIEN CHARLES MURAT (1803- 1878), who was created prince of Ponte Corvo in 1813, lived with his mother in Austria after 1815, and in 1824 started to join his brother in America, but was shipwrecked on the coast of Spain and held for a while a prisoner. Arriving in 1823, two years later he married in Baltimore a rich American, Georgina Frazer (d.. 1879) ; but her fortune was lost, and for some years his wife supported herself and him by keeping a girls' school. After several abortive attempts to return to France, the revolution of 1848 at last gave him his opportunity. He was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly and of the Legislative Assembly (1849), was minister plenipotentiary at Turin from October 1849 to March 1850, and after the coup d'ttat of the 2nd of December 1851 was made a member of the consultative commission. On the proclamation of the Empire, he was recognized by Napoleon III. as a prince of the blood royal, with the title of Prince Murat, and, in addition to the payment of 2,000,000 fr. of debts, was given a^ income of 150,000 fr. As a member of the Senate he distinguished himself in 1861 by supporting the temporal power of the pope, but otherwise he played no conspicuous part. The fall of the Empire in Sep- tember 1870 involved his retirement into private life. He died on the loth of April 1878, leaving three sons and two daughters, (i) Joachim, Prince Murat (1834-1901), in 1854 married Maley Berthier, daughter of the Prince de Wagram, who bore him a son, Joachim (b. 1856), who succeeded him as head of the family, and two daughters, of whom the younger, Anna (b. 1863), became the wife of the Austrian minister Count Goluchowski. (2) Achille (1847-1895), married Princess Dadian of Mingrelia. (3) Louis (b. 1851), married in 1873 to the widowed Princess Eudoxia Orbeliani (nee Somov), was for a time orderly officer to Charles XV.' of Sweden. (4) Caroline (b. 1832), married in 1850 Baron Charles de Chassiron and in 1872 Mr John Garden (d. 1885). (5) Anna (b. 1841), married in 1865 Antoine de Noailles, due de Mouchy. AUTHORITIES.— See A. Sorel, L'Europe el la r&vclution franfaise (8 yols., 1885-1892) passim, but especially vol. viii. for Murat's policy after the 1812; Helfert, Joachim Murat, seine letzten Kampfe und sein Ende (Vienna, 1878); G. Romano, Ricordi muratiani (Pavia, 1890); Correspondence de Joachim Murat, Juillet 1791- Juillet 1808, ed A. Lumbroso (Milan, 1899); Count Murat, Murat, lieutenant de I'empereur en Espagne (Paris, 1897); Guardione, Cioacchino Murat in Italia (Palermo, 1899); M. H. Weil, Prince Eugene et Murat (5 vols., Paris, 1901-1904) ; Chavenon and Saint- Yves, Joachim Murat (Paris, 1905); Lumbroso, L'Agonia di un regnp; Cioacchino Murat al Pizzo (Milan, 1904). See also the bibliography to NAPOLEON I. (W. A. P.) MURATORI, LUDOVICO ANTONIO (1672-1750), Italian scholar, historian and antiquary, was born of poor parents at Vignola in the duchy of Modena on the 2ist of October 1672. While young he attracted the attention of Father Bacchini, the librarian of the duke of Modena, by whom his literary tastes were turned toward historical and antiquarian research. Having taken minor orders in 1688, Muratori proceeded to his degree of doctor inutroquejurebelore 1694, was ordained priest in 1695 and appointed by Count Carlo Borromeo one of the doctors of the Ambrosian library at Milan. From manuscripts now placed under his charge he made a selection of materials for several volumes (Anecdota), which he published with notes. The reputation he acquired was such that the duke of Modena offered him the situation of keeper of the public archives of the duchy. Muratori hesitated, until the offer of the additional post of librarian, on the resignation of Father Bacchini, deter- mined him in 1700 to return to Modena. The preparation of numerous valuable tracts on the history of Italy during the middle ages, and of dissertations and discussions on obscure points of historical and antiquarian interest, as well as the publication of his various philosophical, theological, legal, poetical and other works absorbed the greater part of his time. These brought him into communication with the most distinguished scholars of Italy, France and Germany. But they also exposed him in his later years to envy. His enemies spread abroad the rumour that the pope, Benedict XIV., had discovered in his writings passages savouring of heresy, even of atheism. Muratori appealed to the pope, repudiating the accusation. His Holiness assured him of his protection, and, without expressing his approbation of the opinions in question of the learned antiquary, freed him from the imputations of his enemies. Muratori died on the 23rd of January 1750, and was buried with much pomp in the church of Santa Maria di Pomposa, in connexion with which he had laboured as parish priest for many years. His remains were removed in 1774 to the church of St Augustin. Muratori is rightly regarded as the " father of Italian history." This is due to his great collection, Rerum italicarum scriptores, to which he devoted about fifteen years' work (1723-1738). The gathering together and editing some 25 huge folio volumes of texts was followed by a series of 75 dissertations on medieval Italy (Antiquitates italicae medii aevi, 1738-1742, 6 vols. folio). To these he added a Novtts thesaurus inscriptionum (4 vols. , 1 739-1 743) , which was of great importance in the develop- ment of epigraphy. Then, anticipating the action of the learned societies of the igth century, he set about a popular treatment of the historical sources he had published. These Annali d' Italia (1744-1749) reached 12 volumes, but were imperfect and are of little value. In addition to this national enterprise (the Scriptores were published by the aid of the Societa palatina of Milan) Muratori published Anecdota ex ambrosianae biblio- thecaecodd. (2 vols. 4to, Milan, 1697, 1698; Padua, 1713); Anecdota graeca (3 vols. 4to, Padua, 1709); Antichita Estens MURAVIEV— MURCHISON (2 vols. fol., Modena, 1717); Vita e rime di F. Petrarca (1711), and Vita ed cpere di L. Castehetro (1727). In biblical scholarship Muratori is chiefly known as the dis- coverer of the so-called Muratorian Canon, the name given to a fragment (85 lines) of early Christian literature, which he found in 1740, embedded in an 8th-century codex which forms a compendium of theological tracts followed by the five early Christian creeds. The document contains a list of the books of the New Testament, a similar list concerning the Old Testament having apparently preceded it. It is in barbarous Latin which has probably been translated from original Greek — the language prevailing in Christian Rome until c. 200. There is little doubt that it was composed in Rome and we may date it about the year 190. Lightfoot inclined to Hippolytus as its author. It is the earliest document known which enumerates the books in order. The first line of the fragment is broken and speaks of the Gospel of St Mark, but there is no doubt that its compiler knew also of St Matthew. Acts is ascribed to St Luke. He names thirteen letters of St Paul but says nothing of the Epistle to the Hebrews. The alleged letters of Paul to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians he rejects, " for gall must not be mixed with honey." The two Epistles of Peter and the Epistle of James are not referred to, but that of Jude and two of John are accepted. He includes the Apocalypse of John and also the Apocalypse of Peter. The Shtpherd of Hermas he rejects as not of apostolic origin, but this test of canonicity is not consistently applied for he allows the " Wisdom written by the friends of Solomon in his honour." He rejects the writings of the Gnostics Valentinus and Basilides, and of Montanus. The list is not an authoritative decree, but a private register of what the author considers the prevailing Christian sentiment in his neighbourhood. He notes certain differences among the Gospels, because not all the evangelists were eye-witnesses of the life of Jesus; yet Mark and Luke respectively have behind them the authority of Peter and of Paul, who is thus regarded as on a footing with the Twelve. The Fourth Gospel was written by John at the request of the other apostles and the bishops on the basis of a revelation made to Andrew. The letters of Paul are written to four individuals and to seven different churches, like the seven letters in the Apocalypse of John. It is interesting to notice the coincidence of his list with the evidence gained from Tertullian for Africa and from Irenaeus for Gaul and indirectly for Asia Minor. Before the year 200 there was widespread agreement in the sacred body of apostolic writings read in Christian churches on the Lord's Day along with the Old Testament. Muratori's Letters, with a Life prefixed, were published by Lazzari, (2 vols., Venice, 1783). His nephew, F. G. Muratori, also wrote a Vita del celebre Ludov. Ant. Muratori (Venice, 1756). See also A. G. Spinelli " BibliographiadellelettereestampadiL. A. Muratori " in Bolletino dell' institute storico italiano (1888), and Carducci's preface to the new Scriptores. The Muratorian Canon is given in full with a translation in H. M. Gwatkin's Selections from Early Christian Writers. It is also published as No. I of H. Lietzmann's Kleine Tcxte fur theologische Vorlesungen (Bonn, 1902). See also Journal of Theological Studies, viii. 537. MURAVIEV, MICHAEL NIKOLAIEVICH, COUNT (1845-19(50), Russian statesman, was born on the igth of April 1845. He was the son of General Count Nicholas Muraviev (governor of Grodno), and grandson of the Count Michael Muraviev, who became notorious for his drastic measures in stamping out the Polish insurrection of 1863 in the Lithuanian provinces. He was educated at a secondary school at Poltava, and was for a short time at Heidelberg University. In 1864 he entered the chancel- lery of the minister for foreign affairs at St Petersburg, and was soon afterwards attached to the Russian legation at Stuttgart, where he attracted the notice of Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. He was transferred to Berlin, then to Stockholm, and back again to Berlin. In 1877 he was second secretary at the Hague. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he was a delegate of the Red Cross Society in charge of an ambulance train provided i by Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. After the war he was succes- sively first secretary at Paris, chancellor of the embassy at Berlin, and then minister at Copenhagen. In Denmark he was brought much into contact with the imperial family, and on the death of Prince Lobanov in 1897 he was appointed by the Tsar Nicholas II. to be his minister of foreign affairs. The next three and a half years were a critical time for European diplomacy. The Chinese and Cretan questions were disturbing factors. As regards Crete, Count Muraviev's policy was vacillating; in China his hands were forced by Germany's action at Kiaochow. But he acted with singular Itgerete with regard at all events to his assurances to Great Britain respecting the leases of Port Arthur and Talienwan from China; he told the British ambassador that these would be " open ports," and afterwards essentially modified this pledge. When the Tsar Nicholas inaugurated the Peace Con- ference at the Hague, Count Muraviev extricated his country from a situation of some embarrassment; but when, subsequently, Russian ' agents in Manchuria and at Peking connived at the agitation which culminated in the Boxer rising of 1900, the relations of the responsible foreign minister with the tsar became strained. Muraviev died suddenly on the 2ist of June 1900, of apoplexy, brought on, it was said, by a stormy interview with the tsar. MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK IMPEY (1792-1871), British geologist, was born at Tarradale, in eastern Ross, Scotland, on the igth of February 1792. His father, Kenneth Murchison (d. 1796), came of an old Highland clan in west Ross-shire, and having been educated as a medical man, acquired a fortune in India; while stilt in the prime of life he returned to Scotland, where, marrying one of the Mackenzies of Fairburn, he purchased the estate of Tarradale and settled for a few years as a resident Highland landlord. Young Murchison left the Highlands when three years old, and at the age of seven was sent to the grammar school of Durham, where he remained for six years. He was then placed at the military college, Great Marlow, to be trained for the army. With some difficulty he passed the examinations, and at the age of fifteen was gazetted ensign in the 36th regiment. A year later (1808) he landed with Wellesley in Galicia, and was present at the actions of Rorica and Vimiera. Subsequently under Sir John Moore he took part in the retreat to Corunna and the final battle there. This was his only active service. The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo seeming to close the prospect of advancement in the military profession, Murchison, after eight years of service, quitted the army, and married the daughter of General Hugonin, of Nursted House, Hampshire. With her he then spent rather more than two years on the Continent, particularly in Italy, where her cultivated tastes were of signal influence in guiding his pursuits. He threw himself with all the enthusiasm of his character into the study of art and antiquities, and for the first time in his life tasted the pleasures of truly intellectual pursuits. Returning to England in 1818, he sold his paternal property in Ross-shire and settled in England, where he took to field sports. He soon became one of the greatest fox-hunters in the midland counties; but at last, getting weary of such pursuits and meeting Sir Humphry Davy, who urged him to turn his energy to science, he was induced to attend lectures at the Royal Institution. This change in the current of his occupations was much helped by the sympathy of his wife, who, besides her artistic acquirements, took much interest in natural history. Eager and enthusiastic in whatever he undertook, he was fasci- nated by the young science of geology. He joined the Geological Society of London and soon showed himself one of its most active members, having as his colleagues there such men as Sedgwick, W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland, W. H. Fitton and Lyell. Exploring with his wife the geology of the south of England, he devoted special attention to the rocks of the north- west of Sussex and the adjoining parts of Hants and Surrey, on which, aided by Fitton, he wrote his first scientific paper, read to the society in 1825. Though he had reached the age of thirty- two before he took any interest in science, he developed his taste and increased his knowledge so rapidly that in the first MURCIA three years of his scientific career he had explored large parts of England and Scotland, had obtained materials for three important memoirs, as well as for two more written in conjunction with Sedgwick, and had risen to be a prominent member of the Geological Society and one of its two secretaries. Turning his attention for a little to Continental geology, he explored with Lyell the volcanic region of Auvergne, parts of southern France, northern Italy, Tirol and Switzerland. A little later, with Sedgwick as his companion, he attacked the difficult problem of the geological structure of the Alps, and their joint paper giving the results of their study will always be regarded as one of the classics in the literature of Alpine geology. It was in the year 1831 that Murchison found the field in which the chief work of his life was to be accomplished. Acting on a suggestion made to him by Buckland he betook himself to the borders of Wales, with the view of endeavouring to discover whether the greywacke rocks underlying the Old Red Sandstone could be grouped into a definite order of succession, as the Secondary rocks of England had been made to tell their story by William Smith. For several years he continued to work vigor- ously in that region. The result was the establishment of the Silurian system— under which were grouped for the first time a remarkable series of formations, each replete with distinctive organic remains ol ' ;r than and very different from those of the other rocks of England. These researches, together with descriptions of the coal-fields and overlying formations in south Wales and the English border counties, were embodied in The Silurian System (London, 1839), a massive quarto in two parts, admirably illustrated with map, sections, pictorial views and plates of fossils. The full import of his discoveries was not at first perceived; but as years passed on the types of exigence brought to light by him from the rocks of the border counties of England and Wales were ascertained to belong to a geological period of which there are recognizable traces in almost all parts of the globe. Thus the term " Silurian," derived from the name of the old British tribe Silures, soon passed into the vocabulary of geologists in every country. The establishment of the Silurian system was followed by that of the Devonian system, an investigation in which, aided by the palaeontological assistance of W. Lonsdale, Sedgwick and Murchison were fellow-labourers, both in the south-west of England and in the Rhineland. Soon afterwards Murchison projected an important geological campaign in Russia with the view of extending to that part of the Continent the classification he had succeeded in elaborating for the older rocks of western Europe. He was accompanied by P. E. P. de Verneuil (1805- 1873) and Count A. F. M. L. A. von Keyserling (1815-1891), in conjunction with whom he produced a magnificent work on Russia and the Ural Mountains. The publication of this mono- graph in 1845 completes the first and most active half of Murchi- son's scientific career. In 1846 he was knighted, and in the same year he presided over the meeting of the British Association at Southampton. During the later years of his life a large part of his time was devoted to the affairs of the Royal Geographical Society, of which he was in 1830 one of the founders, and he was president 1843-1845, 1851-1853, 1856-1859 and 1862-1871. So constant and active were his exertions on behalf of geographical exploration that to a large section of the contemporary public he was known rather as a geographer than a geologist. He particu- larly identified himself with the fortunes of David Livingstone in Africa, and did much to raise and keep alive the sympathy of his fellow-countrymen in the fate of that great explorer. The chief geological investigation of the last decade of his life was devoted to the Highlands of Scotland, where he believed he had succeeded in showing that the vast masses of crystalline schists, previously supposed to be part of what used to be termed the Primitive formations, were really not older than the Silurian period, for that underneath them lay beds of limestone and quartzite containing Lower Silurian (Cambrian) fossils. Subse- quent research, however, has shown that this infraposition of the fossiliferous rocks is not their original place, but has been brought about by a gigantic system of dislocations, whereby successive masses of the oldest gneisses have been torn up from below and thrust bodily over the younger formations. In 1855 Murchison was appointed director-general of the geological survey and director of the Royal School of Mines and the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, London, in succession to Sir Henry De la Beche, who had been the first to hold these offices. Official routine now occupied much of his time, but he found opportunity for the Highland researches just alluded to, and also for preparing successive editions of his work Siluria (1854, ed. 5, 1872), which was meant to present the main features of the original Silurian System together with a digest of subsequent discoveries, particularly of those which showed the extension of the Silurian classification into other countries. His official position gave him further opportunity for the exercise of those social functions for which he had always been distinguished, and which a considerable fortune inherited from near relatives on his mother's side enabled him to display on a greater scale. His house in Belgrave Square was one of the great centres where science, art, literature, politics and social eminence were brought together in friendly intercourse. In 1863 he was made a K.C. B., and three years later was raised to the dignity of a baronet. The learned societies of his own country bestowed their highest rewards upon him: the Royal Society gave him the Copley medal, the Geological Society its Wollaston medal, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh its Brisbane medal. There was hardly a foreign scientific society of note which had not his name enrolled among its honorary members. The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the prix Cuvier, and elected him one of its eight foreign members in succession to Faraday. One of the closing public acts of Murchison's life was the founding of a chair of geology and mineralogy in the university of Edinburgh, for which he gave the sum of £6000, an annual sum of £200 being likewise provided by a vote in parliament for the endowment of the professorship. While the negotiations with the Government in regard to this subject were still in progress, Murchison was seized with a paralytic affection on 2ist of November 1870. He rallied and was able to take interest in current affairs until the early autumn of the follow- ing year. After a brief attack of bronchitis he died on the 22nd of October 1871. Under his will there was established the Murchison Medal and geological fund to be awarded annually by the council of the Geological Society in London. See the Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, by Sir A. Geikie (2 vols., 1875)- (A. GE.) MURCIA, a maritime province of south-eastern Spain, bounded on the E. by Alicante, S.E. and S. by the Mediterranean Sea, W. by Almerfa and Granada and N. by Albacete. Pop. (1900), 577,987; area, 4453 sq. m. The extent of coast is about 75 m.; from Cape Palos westwards to Villaricos Point (where Almeria begins) it is fringed by hills reaching their greatest elevation immediately east of Cartagena; northwards from Cape Palos to the Alicante boundary a low sandy tongue encloses the shallow lagoon called Mar Menor. Eastward from the Mar Menor and northward from Cartagena stretches the plain known as El Campo de Cartagena, but the surface of the rest of the province is diversified by ranges of hills, belonging to the same system as the Sierra Nevada, which connect the mountains of Almeria and Granada with those of Alicante. The general direction of these ranges is from south-west to north-east; they reach their highest point (5150 ft.) on the Sierra de Espufia, between the Mula and Sangonera valleys. They are rich in iron, copper, argentiferous lead, alum, sulphur, and saltpetre. Mineral springs occur at Mula, Archena (hot sulphur), and Alhama (hot chalybeate). The greater part of the province drains into the Mediterranean, chiefly by the Segura, which enters it in the north-west below Hellin in Albacete, and leaves it a little above Orihuela ip Alicante; within the province it receives on the left the Arroyo del Jua, and on the right the Caravaca, Quipar, Mula, and Sangonera. The smaller streams of Nogalte and Albujon fall directly into the Mediterranean and the Mar Menor respectively. The climate is hot and dry, and MURCIA— MURDOCK 33 agriculture is largely dependent on irrigation, which, where practicable, has been carried on since the time of the Moors. Wheat, barley, maize, hemp, oil, and wine (the latter somewhat rough in quality) are produced; fruit, especially the orange, is abundant along the course of the Segura; mulberries for seri- culture are extensively grown around the capital; and the number of bees kept is exceptionally large. Esparto grass is gathered on the sandy tracts. The live stock consists chiefly of asses, mules, goats and pigs; horses, cattle and sheep being relatively few. Apart from agriculture, the principal industry is mining, which has its centre near Cartagena. Large quantities' of lead and esparto, as well as of zinc, iron and copper ores, and sulphur, are exported. The province is traversed by a railway which connects Murcia with Albacete and Valencia; from Alcantarilla there is a branch to Lorca and Baza. Near the capital and other large towns there are good roads, but the means of communication are defective in the remoter districts. This deficiency has somewhat retarded the development of mining, and, although it has been partly overcome by the construction of light railways, many rich deposits of ore remain unworked. The chief towns are Murcia, the capital, Cartagena, Lorca, La Uni6n, Mazarron, Yecla, Jumilla, Aguilas, Caravaca, Totana, Cieza, Mula, Moratalla, and Cehegin. Other towns with more than 7000 inhabitants are Alhama, Bulias. Fuente Alamo, Molina and Torre Pacheco. The province of Murcia was the first Spanish possession of the Carthaginians, by whom Nova Carthago was founded. The Romans included it in Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the Moors the province was known as Todmir, which included, according to Edrisi, the cities Murcia, Orihuela, Cartagena, Lorca, Mula and Chinchilla. The kingdom of Murcia, which came into independent existence after the fall of Omayyads (see CALIPHATE) included the present Albacete as well as Murcia. It became subject to the crown of Castile in the I3th century. Until 1833 the province of Murcia also included Albacete. MURCIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Murcia; on the river Segura, 25 m. W. of the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900), 111,539. Murcia is connected by rail with all parts of Spain, and is an important industrial centre, sixth in respect of population among the cities of the kingdom. It has been an episcopal see since 1291. It is built nearly in the centre of a low-lying fertile plain, known as the huerta or garden of Murcia, which includes the valleys of the Segura and its right-hand tribu- tary the Sangonera, and is surrounded by mountains. Despite the proximity of the sea, the climate is subject to great varia- tions, the summer heat being severe, while frosts are common in winter. The city is built mainly on the left bank of the Segura, which curves north-eastward after receiving the Sangonera below Murcia, and falls into the Mediterranean about 30 m. N.E. A fine stone bridge of two arches gives access to the suburb of San Benito, which contains the bull-ring. As a rule the streets are broad, straight and planted with avenues of trees, but the Calle de Plateria and Calle de la Traperia, which contain many of the principal shops, are more characteristically Spanish, being lined with old-fashioned balconied houses, and so narrow that wheeled traffic is in most parts impossible. In summer these thoroughfares are shaded by awnings. The Malecon, or embank- ment, is a fine promenade skirting the left bank of the Segura; the river is here crossed by a weir and supplies power to several silk-mills. The principal square is the Arenal or Plaza de la Constituci6n, planted with orange trees and adjoining the Glorieta Park. The cathedral, dating from 1388-1467, is the work of many architects; in the main it is late Gothic, but a Renaissance dome and a tower 480 ft. high were added in 1521, while a Corinthian facade was erected in the i8th century. There are some good paintings and fine wood-carving in the interior. Other noteworthy buildings are the colleges of San Fulgencio and San Isidro, the bishops' palace, the hospital of San Juan de Dios, the Moorish Alhondiga, or grain warehouse, the buildings of the municipal and provincial councils and the Contraste, which is adorned with sculptured coats-of-arms, and was originally designed to contain standard weights and XIX. 2 measures; it has become a picture-gallery. There are two training schools for teachers, a provincial institute and a museum. Since 1875 the industrial importance of Murcia has steadily increased. Mulberries (for silkworms), oranges and other fruits are largely cultivated in the huerta, and the silk industry, which dates from the period of Moorish rule, is still carried on. Manu- factures of woollen, linen and cotton goods, of saltpetre, flour, leather and hats, have been established in more modern times, and Murcia is the chief market for the agricultural produce of a large district. A numerous colony of gipsies has settled in the west of the city. Murcia was an Iberian town before the Punic Wars, but its name then, and under Roman cule, is not known, though some have tried to identify it with the Roman Vergilia. To the Moors, who took possession early in the 8th century, it was known as Medinat Mursiya. Edrisi described it in the i2th century as populous and strongly fortified. After the fall of the caliphate of Cordova it passed successively under the rule of Almeria, Toledo and Seville. In 1172 it was taken by the Almohades, and from 1223 to 1243 it became the capital of an independent kingdom. The Castilians took it at the end of this period, when large numbers of immigrants from north-eastern Spain and Provence settled in the town; French and Catalan names are still not uncommon. Moorish princes continued to rule in name over this mixed population, but in 1269 a rising against the suzerain, Alphonso the Wise, led to the final incorporation of Murcia (which then included the present province of Albacete) into the kingdom of Castile. During the War of the Spanish Succession Bishop Luis de Belluga defended the city against the archducal army by flooding the huerta. In 1810 and 1812 it was attacked by the French under Marshal Soult. It suffered much from floods in 1651, 1879 and 1907, though the construc- tion of the Malecon has done much to keep the Segura within its own channel. In 1829 many buildings, including the cathedral, were damaged by an earthquake. MURDER, in law, the unlawful killing of a person with malice aforethought (see HOMICIDE). The O. Eng. morSor comes ulti- mately from the Indo-European root mar-, to die, which has also given Lat. mars, death, and all its derivatives in English, French and other Rom. languages; cf. Gr. |3por6$, for noprbs, mortal. The O. Eng. form, Latinized as murdrum, murtrum, whence Fr. meurtre, is represented in other Teutonic languages by a cognate form, e.g. Ger. Mord, Du. moord. MURDOCK, WILLIAM (1754-1839), British inventor, was born near the village of Auchinleck in Ayrshire on the 2 rst of August 1754. His father, John Murdoch (as the name is spelt in Scotland), was a millwright and miller, and William was brought up in the same occupation. In 1777 he entered the employment of Boulton & Watt in the Soho works at Birming- ham, and about two years afterwards he was sent to Cornwall to superintend the fitting of Watt's engines. It is said that while staying at Redruth he carried a series of experiments in the distillation of coal so far that in 1792 he was able to light his cottage and offices with gas, but the evidence is not conclusive. However, after his return to Birmingham about 1799, he made such progress in the discovery of practical methods for making, storing and purifying gas that in 1802 a portion of the exterior of the Soho factory was lighted with it in celebration of the peace of Amiens, and in the following year it -was brought into use for the interior. Murdock was also the inventor of important improvements in the steam-engine. He was the first to devise an oscillating engine, of which he made a model about 1784; in 1786 he was busy — somewhat to the annoyance of both Boulton and Watt — with a steam carriage or road locomotive; and in 1799 he invented the long D slide valve. He is also believed to have been the real deviser of the sun and planet motion patented by Watt in 1781. In addition his ingenuity was directed to the utilization of compressed air, and in 1803 he constructed a steam gun. He retired from business in 1830, and died at Soho on the isth of November 1839. At the celebration of the centenary of gas lighting in 1892, a bust of Murdock was unveiled by Lord Kelvin in the Wallace Monument. 34 MURE— MURGER Stirling, and there is also a bust of him by Sir F. L. Chantrey at Handsworth Church, where he was buried. His " Account of the Application of Gas from Coal to Economical Purposes " appeared in the Phil. Trans, for 1808. MURE, SIR WILLIAM (1594-1657), Scottish writer, son of Sir William Mure of Rowallan, was born in 1594. His mother was Elizabeth, sister of the poet Alexander Montgomerie (q.v.). He was a member of the Scottish parliament in 1643, and took part in the English campaign of 1644. He was wounded at Marston Moor, but a month later was commanding a regiment at Newcastle. He died in 1657. He wrote Dido and Aeneas; a translation (1628) of Boyd of Trochrig's Latin Hecatombe Christiana; The True Crucifixe for True Catholikes (1629); a paraphrase of the Psalms; the Historic and Descent of the House of Rowallane; A Counter-buff to Lysimachus Nicanor; TheCry of Blood and of a Broken Covenant (1650); besides much miscellaneous verse and many sonnets. A complete edition of his works was edited by William Tough for the Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1898). Mure's Lute-Book, a musical document of considerable interest, is preserved in the Laing collection of MSS. in the library of the university of Edinburgh. MURE, WILLIAM (1799-1860), Scottish classical scholar, was born at Caldwell, Ayrshire, on the 9th of July 1799. He was educated at Westminster School and the universities of Edinburgh and Bcnn. From 1846 to 1855 he represented the county of Renfrew in parliament in the Conservative interest, and was lord rector of Glasgow University in 1847-1848. For many years he devoted his leisure to Greek 'studies, and in 1850-1857 he published five volumes of a Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, which, though uncompleted and somewhat antiquated, is still useful. He died in London on the ist of April 1860. MURENA, the name of a Roman plebeian family from Lanuvium, belonging to the Licinian gens, said to be derived from the fondness of one of the family for lampreys (murenae) . The principal members of the family were Lucius Licinius Murena, who was defeated by Mithradates in Asia in 81 B.C., and his son Lucius Licinius Murena, who was defended by Cicero in 62 B.C. against a charge of bribery (Cic. Pro Murena). The son was for several years legate of Lucius Licinius Lucullus in the third Mithradatic War. In 65 he was praetor and made himself popular by the magnificence of the games provided by him. As administrator of Transalpine Gaul after his praetorship he gained the goodwill of both provincials and Romans by his impartiality. In 62 he was elected consul, but before entering upon office he was accused of bribery by Servius Sulpicius,an unsuccessful competitor, supported by Marcus Porcius Cato the younger and Servius Sulpicius Rufus, a famous jurist and son of the accuser. Murena was defended by Marcus Licinius Crassus (afterwards triumvir), Quintus Hortensius and Cicero, and acquitted, although it seems probable that he was guilty. During his consulship he passed a law {lex Junta Licinia) which enforced more strictly the provision of the lex Caecilia Didia — that laws sjjould be promulgated three nundinae before they were proposed to the comitia, and further enacted that, in order to prevent forgery, a copy of every proposed statute should be deposited before witnesses in the aerarium. MURETUS, the Latinized name of MARC ANTOINE MURET (1526-1585), French humanist, who was born at Muret near Limoges on the i2th of April 1526. At the age of eighteen he attracted the notice of the elder Scaliger, and was invited to lecture in the archiepiscopal college at Auch. He afterwards taught Latin at Villeneuve, and then at Bordeaux. Some time before 1552 he delivered a course of lectures in the college of Cardinal Lemoine at Paris, which was largely attended, Henry II. and his queen being among his hearers. His success made him many enemies, and he was thrown into prison on a disgraceful charge, but released by the intervention of powerful friends. The same accusation was brought against him at Toulouse, and he only saved his life by timely flight. The records of the town show that he was burned in effigy as a Huguenot and as shame- fully immoral (1554). After a wandering and insecure life of some years in Italy, he received and accepted the invitation of the Cardinal Ippolyte d'Este to settle in Rome in 1559. In 1561 he revisited France as a member of the cardinal's suite at the conference between Roman Catholics and Protestants held at Poissy. He returned to Rome in 1563. His lectures gained him a European reputation, and in 15 78 he received a tempting offer from the king of Poland to become teacher of jurisprudence in his new college at Cracow. Muretus, however, who about 1576 had taken holy orders, was induced by the liberality of Gregory XIII. to remain in Rome, where he died on the 4th of June 1585. Complete editions of his works: editio princeps, Verona (1727- 1730); by D. Ruhnken (1789), by C. H. Frotscher (1834-1841); two volumes of Scripta selecta, by J. Frey (1871); Variae lectiones, by F. A. Wolf and J. H. Fasi (1791-1828). Muretus edited a number of classical authors with learned and scholarly notes. His other works include Juvenilia et poemata varia, orationes and epistolae. See monograph by C. Dejob (Paris, 1881); J. E. Sandys, HisU Class. Schol., (2nd ed., 1908), ii. 148-152. MUREXIDE (NH^Cs^NsOe.HzO), the ammonium salt of purpuric acid. It may be prepared by heating alloxantin in ammonia gas to 100° C., or by boiling uramil with mercuric oxide (J. v. Liebig, F. Wohler, Ann., 1838, 26, 319), 2C4H6N3O3+O = NH4-C8H4N6O6+H2O. W. N. Hartley (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, 1791) found considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens of murexide sufficiently pure to give concordant results when examined by means of their absorption spectra, and conse- quently devised a new method of preparation for murexide. In this process alloxantin is dissolved in a large excess of boiling absolute alcohol, and dry ammonia gas is passed into the solution for about three hours. The solution is then filtered from the precipitated murexide, which is washed with absolute alcohol and dried. The salt obtained in this way is in the anhydrous state. It may also be prepared by digesting alloxan with alcoholic ammonia at about 78° C.; the purple solid so formed is easily soluble in water, and the solution produced is indistinguishable from one of murexide. On the constitution of murexide see also O. Piloty (Ann., 1904, 333. 3°); R. Mohlau (Ber., 1904, 37, 2686); and M. Slimmer and J. Stieglitz (Amer. Chem. Jour., 1904, 31, 661). MURFREESBORO, a city and the county-seat of Rutherford county, Tennessee, U.S.A., near the Stone River, 32 m. S.E. of Nashville. Pop. (1890), 3739; (1900), 3999 (2248 negroes); (1910), 4679. It is served by the Nashville Chattanooga & St Louis railway. It is in an agricultural region where cotton is an important crop, and has a considerable trade in red cedar, hardwood, cotton, livestock and grain; it has also various manufactures. At Murfreesboro are Soule College for girls (Methodist Episcopal South; 1852), Tennessee College for girls (Baptist, 1906), Mooney School for boys (1901), and Bradley Academy for negroes. Murfreesboro was settled in 1811; was incorporated in 1817, and from 1819 to 1825 was the capital of the state. It was named in honour of Colonel Hardy Murfree (1752-1809), a native of North Carolina, who served as an officer of North Carolina troops in the War of Independence, and after 1807 lived in Tennessee. About 2 m. west of the city the battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River (q.v.), was fought on the 3ist of December 1862 and the 2nd of January 1863. MURGER, HENRY (1822-1861), French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 24th of March 1822. His father was a German concierge and a tailor. At the age of fifteen Murger was sent into a lawyer's office, but the occupation was uncongenial and his father's trade still more so; and he became secretary to Count Alexei Tolstoi. He published in 1843 a poem entitled Via dolorosa, but it made no mark. He also tried journalism, and the paper Le Castor, which figures in his Vie de Bohdme as having combined devotion to the interests of the hat trade with recondite philosophy and elegant literature, is said to have existed, though shortlived. In 1848 appeared the collected sketches called Scenes de la vie de BohZme.- This book describes the fortunes and misfortunes, the loves, studies, amusements and sufferings of a group of impecunious students, artists and MURGHAB— MURILLO 35 men of letters, of whom Rodolphe represents Murger himself, while the others have been more or less positively identified. Murger, in fact, belonged to a clique of so-called Bohemians, the most remarkable of whom, besides himself, were Privat d'Angle- mont and Champfleury. La Vie de Boheme, arranged for the stage in collaboration with Theodore Barriere, was produced at the Varietes on the 22nd of November 1849, and was a triumphant success; it afterwards formed the basis of Puccini's opera, La Boheme (1898). From this time it was easy for Murger to live by journalism and general literature. He was introduced in 1851 to the Revue des deux mondes. But he was a slow, fastidious and capricious worker, and his years of hardship and dissipation had impaired his health. He published among other works Claude et Marianne in 1851 ; a comedy, Le Bonhomme Jadis in 1852; Le Pays Latin in 1852; Adeline Prolat (one of the most graceful and innocent if not the most original of his tales) in 1853; and Les Buveurs d'eau in 1855. This last, the most powerful of his books next to the Vie de Boheme, traces the fate of certain artists and students who, exaggerating their own powers and disdaining merely profitable work, come to an evil end not less rapidly than by dissipation. Some years before his death, which took place in a maison de sanle near Paris on the 28th of January 1861, Murger went to live at Marlotte, near Fontainebleau, and there he wrote an unequal book entitled Le Sabot rouge (1860), in which the character of the French peasant is uncomplimentarily treated. See an article by A. de Pontmartin in the Revue des deux mondes {October 1861). MURGHAB, a river of Afghanistan, which flows into Russian territory. It rises in the Firozkhoi highlands, the northern scarp of which is defined by the Band-i-Turkestan, and after traversing that plateau from east to west it turns north through deep defiles to Bala Murghab. Beyond this, in the neighbour- hood of Maruchak, it forms for a space the boundary-line between Afghan and Russian Turkestan; then joining the Kushk river at Pul-i-Khishti (Tash Kupri) it runs north to Merv, losing itself in the sands of the Merv desert after a course of about 450 m., its exact source being unknown. In the neighbourhood of Bala Murghab it is 50 yds. broad and some 3 ft. deep, with a rapid current. In the lower part of its course it is flanked by a remarkable network of canals. The ancient city of Merv, which was on its banks, was the great centre of medieval Arab trade, and Buddhist caves are found in the scarped cliffs of its right bank near Panjdeh. MURI, a province of the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between 9° and 11° 40' E. and 7° 10' and 9° 40' N. The river Benue divides it through its length, and the portion on the southern bank of the river is watered by streams flowing from the Cameroon region to the Benue. The province is bordered S. by Southern Nigeria, S.E. by German territory (Cameroon), E. by the province of Yola, N. by Bauchi, W. by Nassarawa and Bassa. The district of Katsena- Allah extends south of the Benue . considerably west of 9° E., the approximate limit of the remainder of the province. Muri has an area of 25,800 sq. m. and an estimated population of about 828,000. The province is rich in forest products and the Niger Company maintains trading stations on the river. Cotton is grown, and spinning thread, weaving and dyeing afford occupation to many thousands. The valley of the Benue has a climate generally unhealthy to Europeans, but there are places in the northern part of the province, such as the Fula settlement of Wase on a southern spur of the Murchison hills, where the higher altitude gives an excellent •climate. Muri includes the ancient Jukon empire together with various small Fula states and a number of pagan tribes, among whom the Munshi, who extend into the provinces of Nassarawa and Bassa, are among the most turbulent. The Munshi occupy about 4000 sq. m. in the Katsena-Allah district. The pagan tribes in the north of the province are lawless cannibals who by constant outrages and murders of traders long rendered the main trade route to Bauchi unsafe, and cut off the markets of the Benue valley and the Cameroon from the Hausa states. Only two routes, one via Wase and the other via Gatari, pass through this belt. In the south of the province a similar belt of hostile pagans closed the access to the Cameroon except by two routes, Takum and Beli. For Hausa traders to cross the Muri province was a work of such danger and expense that before the advent of British administration the attempt was seldom made. Muri came nominally under British control in 1900. The principal effort of the administration has been to control and open the trade routes. In 1904 an expedition against the northern cannibals resulted in the capture of their principal fortresses and the settlement and opening to trade of a large district, the various routes to the Benue being rendered safe. In 1905 an expedition against the Munshi, rendered necessary by an unprovoked attack on the Niger Company's station at Abinsi, had a good effect in reducing the riverain portion of this tribe to submission. The absence of any central native authority delayed the process of bringing the province under administrative control. Its government "has been organized on the same system as the rest of Northern Nigeria, and is under a British resident. It has been divided into three administrative divisions — east, central and west — with their respective head- quarters at Lau, Amar and Ibi. Provincial and native courts of justice have been established. The telegraph has been carried to the town of Muri. Muri is one of the provinces in which the slave trade was most active, and its position between German territory and the Hausa states rendered it in the early days of the British administration a favourite route for the smuggling of slaves. MURILLO, BARTOLOM6 ESTEBAN (1617-1682), Spanish painter, son of Caspar Esteban Murillo and Maria Perez, was born at Seville in 1617, probably at the end1 of the year, as he was baptized on the first of January 1618. Esteban-Murillo appears to have been the compound surname of the father, but some inquirers consider that, in accordance with a frequent Andalusian custom, the painter assumed the surname of his maternal grandmother, Elvira Murillo, in addition to that of his father. His parents (the father an artisan of a humble class), having been struck with the sketches which the boy was accustomed to make, placed him under the care of their distant relative, Juan del Castillo, the painter. Juan, a correct draughtsman and dry colourist, taught him all the mechanical parts of his profession with extreme care, and Murillo proved himself an apt pupil. The artistic appliances of his master's studio were not abundant, and were often of the simplest kind. A few casts, some stray fragments of sculpture and a lay figure formed the principal aids available for the Sevillian student of art. A living model was a luxury generally beyond the means of the school, but on great occasions the youths would strip in turn and proffer an arm or a leg to be .studied by their fellows. Objects of still life, however, were much studied by Murillo, and he early learnt to hit off the ragged urchins of Seville. Murillo in a few years painted as well as his master, and as stiffly. His two pictures of the Virgin, executed during this period, show how thoroughly he had mastered the style, with all its defects. Castillo was a kind man, but his removal to Cadiz in 1639-1640 threw his favourite pupil upon his own resources. The fine school of Zurbaran was too expensive for the poor lad; his parents were either dead or too poor to help him, and he was compelled to earn his bread by painting rough pictures for the " feria " or public fair of Seville. The religious daubs exposed at that mart were generally of as low an order as the prices paid for them. A " pintura de la feria " (a picture for the fair) was a proverbial expression for an execrably bad one; yet the street painters who thronged the market-place with their "clumsy saints and unripe Madonnas " not unfrequently rose to be able and even famous artists. This rough-and-ready practice, partly for the market-place, partly for converts in Mexico and Peru, for whom Madonnas and popular saints were produced and shipped off by the dozen, doubtless increased Murillo's manual dexterity; but, if we may judge from the picture of the " Virgin and Child" shown in the Murillo-room at Seville as belonging to this period, he made little improvement MURILLO in colouring or in general strength of design. Struck by the favourable change which travel had wrought upon the style of his brother artist Pedro de Moya, Murillo in 1642 resolved to make a journey to Flanders or Italy. Having bought a large quantity of canvas, he cut it into squares of different sizes, which he converted into pictures of a kind likely to sell. The American traders bought up his pieces, and he found himself sufficiently rich to carry out his design. He placed his sister, who was dependent on him, under the care of some friends, and without divulging his plans to any one set out for Madrid. On reaching the capital he waited on Velazquez, his fellow-townsman — then at the summit of his fortune — and asked for some introduc- tion to friends in Rome. The master liked the youth, and offered him lodging in his own house, and proposed to procure him admission to the royal galleries of the capital. Murillo accepted the offer, and here enjoyed the masterpieces of Italy and Flanders without travelling beyond the walls of Madrid. The next two years- were chiefly spent in copying from Ribera, Vandyck and Velazquez; and in 1644 he so astonished the latter with some of his efforts that they were submitted to the king and the court. His patron now urged him to go to Rome, and offered him letters to smooth his way; but Murillo preferred returning to his sister and his native Seville. The friars of the convent of San Francesco in Seville had about this time determined to adorn the walls of their small cloister in a manner worthy of their patron saint. But the brotherhood had no money; and after endless begging they found themselves incapable of employing an artist of name to execute the task. Murillo was needy, and offered his services; after balancing their own poverty against his obscurity the friars bade him begin. Murillo covered the walls with eleven large pictures of remarkable power and beauty — displaying by turns the strong colouring of Ribera, the lifelike truthfulness of Velazquez, and the sweetness of Vandyck. Among them were to be found representations of San Francesco, of San Diego, of Santa Clara and of San Gil. These pictures were executed in his earliest style, commonly called his frio or cold style. It was based chiefly on Ribera and Caravaggio, and was dark with a decided outline. This rich collection is no longer in Seville; Marshal Soult carried off ten of the works. The fame of these productions soon got abroad, and " El Claustro Chico " swarmed daily with artists and critics. Murillo was no longer friendless and unknown. The rich and the noble of Seville overwhelmed him with their commissions and their praises. In 1648 Murillo married a wealthy lady of rank, Dona Beatriz de Cabrera y Sotomayor, of the neighbourhood of Seville, and his house soon became the favourite resort of artists and connoisseurs. About this time he was associated with the land- scape-painter Yriarte — the two artists interchanging figures and landscapes for their respective works; but they did not finally agree, and the co-operation came to an end. Murillo now painted the well-known " Flight into Egypt," and shortly afterwards changed his earliest style of painting for his calido or warm style. His drawing was still well defined, but his outlines became softer and his figures rounder, and his colouring gained in warmth and transparency. His first picture of this style, according to Cean Bermudez, was a representation of " Our Lady of the Conception," and was painted in 1652 for the brotherhood of the True Cross; he received for it 2500 reals (£26). In 1655 he executed his two famous paintings of " San Leandro " and " San Isidoro " at the order of Don Juan Federigo, archdeacon of Carmona, which are now in the cathedral of Seville. These are two noble portraits, finished with great care and admirable effect, but the critics complain of the figures being rather short. His next picture, the " Nativity of the Virgin," painted for the chapter, is regarded as one of the most delightful specimens of his calido style. In the following year (1656) the same body gave him an order for a vast picture of San Antonio de Padua, for which he received 10,000 reals (£104). This is one of his most celebrated performances, and still hangs in the baptistery of the cathedral. It was " repaired " in 1833; the grandeur of the design, however, and the singular richness of the colouring may still be traced. The same year saw him engaged on four large semicircular pictures, designed by his friend and patron Don Justino Neve y Yevenes, to adorn the walls of the church of Santa Maria la Blanca. The first two (now in Madrid) were meant to illustrate the history of the Festival of Our Lady of the Snow, or the foundation of the Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The one represents the wealthy but childless Roman senator and his lady asleep and dreaming; the other exhibits the devout pair relating their dream to Pope Liberius. Of these two noble paintings the Dream is the finer, and in it is to be noticed the commence- ment of Murillo's third and last style, known as the vaporoso or vapoury. It should be noted, however, that the three styles are not strictly separable into date-periods; for the painter alternated the styles accordingly to his subject-matter or the mood of his inspiration, the calido being the most frequent. In the vaporoso method the well-marked outlines and careful drawing of his former styles disappear, the outlines are lost in the misty blending of the light and shade, and the general finish betrays more haste than was usual with Murillo. After many changes of fortune, these two pictures now hang in the Academy at Madrid. The remaining pieces executed for this small church were a " Virgin of the Conception " and a figure of " Faith." Soult laid his hands on these also, and they have not been recovered. In 1658 Murillo undertook and consummated a task which had hitherto baffled all the artists of Spain, and even royalty itself. This was the establishing of a public academy of art. By superior tact and good temper he overcame the vanity of Valdes Leal and the presumption of the younger Herrera, and secured their co-operation. The Academy of Seville was accordingly opened for the first time in January 1660, and Murillo and the second Herrera were chosen presidents. The former continued to direct it during the following year; but the calls of his studio induced him to leave it in other hands. It was then flourishing, but not for long. Passing over some half-length pictures of saints and a dark- haired Madonna, painted in 1668 for the chapter-room of the cathedral of his native city, we enter upon the most splendid period of Murillo's career. In 1661 Don Miguel Manara Vicen- telo de Leca, who had recently turned to a life of sanctity from one of the wildest profligacy, resolved to raise money for the restoration of the dilapidated Hospital de la Caridad, of whose pious gild he was himself a member. Manara commissioned his friend Murillo to paint eleven pictures for this edifice of San Jorge. Three of these pieces represented the " Annunciation," the " Infant Saviour," and the " Infant St John." The remaining eight are considered Murillo's masterpieces. They consist of " Moses striking the Rock," the " Return of the Prodigal," " Abraham receiving the Three Angels," the "Charity of San Juan de Dios," the " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes," " Our Lord healing the Paralytic," " St Peter released from Prison by the Angel," and " St Elizabeth of Hungary." These works occupied the artist four years, and in 1674 he received for his eight great pictures 78,115 reals or about £800. The " Moses, " the " Loaves and Fishes," the " San Juan," and the three subjects which we have named first, are still at Seville; the French carried off the rest, but the " St Elizabeth " and the " Prodigal Son " are now back in Spain. For compass and vigour the " Moses " stands first; but the " Prodigal's Return " and the " St Elizabeth " were considered by Bermudez the most perfect of all as works of art. The front of this famous hospital was also indebted to the genius of Murillo; five large designs in blue glazed tiles were executed from his drawings. He had scarcely completed the undertakings for this edifice when his favourite Franciscans again solicited his aid. He accordingly executed some twenty paintings for the humble little church known as the Convent de los Capucinos. Seventeen of these Capuchin pictures are preserved in the Museum of Seville. Of these the " Charity of St Thomas of Villanueva " is reckoned the best. Murillo himself was wont to call it " su lienzo " (his own picture). Another little piece of extraordinary MURIMUTH— MURKER 37 merit, which once hung in this church, is the " Virgin of the Napkin," believed to have been painted on a " servilleta " and presented to the cook of the Capuchin brotherhood as a memorial of the artist's pencil. In 1670 Murillo is said to have declined an invitation to court, preferring to labour among the brown coats of Seville. Eight years afterwards his friend the canon Justino again employed him to paint three pieces for the Hospital de los Venerables: the " Mystery of the Immaculate Conception," " St Peter Weeping," and the " Blessed Virgin." As a mark of esteem, Murillo next painted a full-length portrait of the canon. The spaniel at the feet of the priest has been known to call forth a snarl from a living dog. His portraits generally, though few, are of great beauty. Towards the close of his life Murillo executed a series of pictures illustrative of the life of " the glorious doctor " for the Augustinian convent at Seville. This brings us to the last work of the artist. Mounting a scaffolding one day at Cadiz (whither he had gone in 1681) to execute the higher parts of a large picture of the " Espousal of St Catherine," on which he was engaged for the Capuchins of that town, he stumbled, and fell so violently that he received a hurt from which he never recovered. The great picture was left unfinished, and the artist returned to Seville to die. He died as he had lived, a humble, pious, brave man, on the 3rd of April 1682 in the arms of the chevalier Pedro Nunez de Villavicencio, an intimate friend and one of his best pupils. Another of his numerous pupils was Sebastian Gomez, named " Murillo's Mulatto." Murillo left two sons (one of them at first an indifferent painter, afterwards a priest) and a daughter — his wife having died before him. Murillo has always been one of the most popular of painters — not in Spain alone. His works show great technical attainment without much style, and a strong feeling for ordinary nature and for truthful or sentimental expression without lofty beauty or ideal elevation. His ecstasies of Madonnas and Saints are the themes of some of his most celebrated achievements. Take as an example the " Immaculate Conception " (or " Assumption of the Virgin," for the titles may, with reference to Murillo's treatments of this subject, almost be interchanged) in the Louvre, a picture for which, on its sale from the Soult collection, one of the largest prices on record was given in 1852, some £24,600. His subjects may be divided into two great groups — the scenes from low life (which were a new experiment in Spanish art, so far as the subjects of children are concerned), and the Scriptural, legendary and religious works. The former, of which some salient specimens are in the Dulwich Gallery, are, although undoubtedly truthful, neither ingenious not sym- pathetic; sordid unsightliness and roguish squalor are their foundation. Works of this class belong mostly to the earlier years of Murillo's practice. The subjects in which the painter most excels are crowded compositions in which some act of saintliness, involving the ascetic or self-mortifying element, is being performed — subjects which, while repulsive in some of their details, emphasize the broadly human and the expressly Catholic conceptions of life. A famous example is the picture, now in the Madrid Academy, of St Elizabeth of Hungary washing patients afflicted with the scab or itch, and hence commonly named " El Tinoso." Technically considered, it unites his three styles of painting, more especially the cold and the warm. His power of giving atmosphere to combined groups of figures is one of the marked characteristics of Murillo's art; and he may be said to have excelled in this respect all his predecessors or con- temporaries of whatever school. Seville must still be visited by persons who wish to study Murillo thoroughly. A large number of the works which used to adorn this city have, however, been transported else- whither. In the Prado Museum at Madrid are forty-five specimens of Murillo — the " Infant Christ and the Baptist " (named " Los Nifios della Concha "), " St Ildefonso vested with a Chasuble by the Madonna," &c.; in the Museo della Trinidad, " Christ and the Virgin appearing to St Francis in a Cavern " (an immense composition), and various others. In the National Gallery, London, the chief example is the " Holy Family "; this was one of the master's latest works, painted in Cadiz. In public galleries in the United Kingdom there are altogether twenty-four examples by Murillo; in those of Spain, seventy-one. Murillo, who was the last pre-eminent painter of Seville, was an indefatigable and prolific worker, hardly leaving his painting- room save for his devotions in church; he realized large prices, according to the standard of his time, and made a great fortune. His character is recorded as amiable and soft, yet independent, subject also to sudden impulses, not unmixed with passion. See Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain (3 vols., London, 1848); Richard Ford, Handbook for Spain (London, 1855); Curtis, Catalogue of the Works of Velasquez and Murillo (1883); L. Alfonso, Murillo, el hombre, &c. (1886); C. Justi, Murillo (illustrated, 1892); P. Lefort, Murillo elfes eleves (1892); F. M. Tubino, Murillo, su epoca, &c. (1864; Eng. trans., 1879); Dr G. C. Williamson, Murillo (1902) ; C. S. Ricketts, Th* Prado (1903). (W. M. R.) MURIMUTH, ADAM (c. 1274-1347), English ecclesiastic and chronicler, was born in 1274 or 1275 and educated in the civil law at Oxford. Between 1312 and 1318 he practised in the papal curia at Avignon. Edward II. and Archbishop Winchelsey were among his clients, and his legal services secured for him canonries at Hereford and St Paul's, and the precentorship of Exeter Cathedral. In 1331 he retired to a country living (Wraysbury, Bucks), and devoted himself to writing the history of his own times. His Continuatio chronicarum, begun not earlier than 1325, starts from the year 1303, and was carried up to 1347, the year of his death. Meagre at first, it becomes fuller about 1340 and is specially valuable for the history of the French wars. Murimuth has no merits of style, and gives a bald narrative of events. But he incorporates many documents in the latter part of his book. The annals of St. Paul's which have been edited by Bishop Stubbs, are closely related to the work of Murimuth, but probably not from his pen. The Continuatio was carried on, after his death, by an anonymous writer to the year 1380. The only complete edition of the Continuatio chronicarum is that by E. M. Thompson (Rolls series, 1889). The preface to this edition, and to W. Stubbs's Chronicles of Edward I. and II., vol. i. (Rolls series, 1882), should be consulted. The anonymous continuation is printed in T. Hog's edition of Murimuth (Eng. Hist. Soc., London, 1846). (H. W. C. D.) MURKER, THOMAS (1475-1537?), German satirist, was born on the 24th of December 1475 at Oberehnheim near Strass- burg. In 1490 he entered the order of Franciscan monks, and in 1495 began a wandering life, studying and then teaching and preaching in Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Paris, Cracow and Strassburg. The emperor Maximilian I. crowned him in 1505 poeta laureatus; in 1506, he was created doctor theologiae, and in 1513 was ap- pointed custodian of the Franciscan monastery in Strassburg, an office which, on account of a scurrilous publication, he was forced to vacate the following year. Late in life, in 1518, he began the study of jurisprudence at the university of Basel, and in 1519 took the degree of doctor juris. After journeys in Italy and England, he again settled in Strassburg, but, disturbed by the Reformation, sought an exile at Lucerne in Switzerland in 1526. In 1533 he was appointed priest of Oberehnheim, where he died in 1537, or, according to some accounts, in 1536. Murner was an energetic and passionate character, who made enemies wherever he went. There is not a trace of human kindness in his satires, which were directed against the cor- ruption of the times, the Reformation, and especially against Luther. His most powerful satire — and the most virulent German satire of the period — is Von dem grossen lulherischen Narren, wie ihn Dr Murner beschworen hat. Among others may be mentioned Die Narrenbeschworung (1512); Die Schelmen- zunft (1512); Die Gauchmatt, which treats of enamoured fools (1519), and a translation of Virgil's Aeneid (1515) dedicated to the emperor Maximilian I. Murner also wrote the humor- ous Chartiludium logicae (1507) and the Ludus studentum freiburgensium (1511), besides a translation of Justinian's Institutiones (1519). All Murner's more important works have been republished in MUROM— MURRAY, A. S. critical editions; a selection was published by G. Balke in Kiirsch- ner's Deutsche Nationattiteratur (1890). Cf. W. Kawerau, Murner und die Kirche des Mittelalters (1890); and by the same writer, Murner und die deutsche Reformation (1891); also K. Ott, Uber Murners Verhdltniss zu Geiler (1896). MUROM, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, on the craggy left bank of the Oka, close to its confluence with the Tesha, 108 m. by rail S.E. of the city of Vladimir. Pop. (1900), 12,874. Muron has an old cathedral. It is the chief entrepot for grain from the basin of the Ewer Oka, and carries on an active trade with Moscow and Nizhniy-Novgorod. It is famed, as in ancient times, for kitchen-gardens, especially for its cucumbers and seed for canaries. Its once famous tanneries have lost their importance, but the manufacture of linen has increased; it has also steam flour-mills, distilleries, manufac- tories of soap and of iron implements. MURPHY, ARTHUR (1727-1805), Irish actor and dramatist, son of a Dublin merchant, was born at Clomquin, Roscommon, on the 27th of December 1727. From 1738 to 1744, under the name of Arthur French, he was a student at the English college at St Omer. He entered the counting-house of a mer- chant at Cork on recommendation of his uncle, Jeffery French, in 1747. A refusal to go to Jamaica alienated French's interest, and Murphy exchanged his situation for one in London. By the autumn of 1752 he was publishing the Gray's Inn Journal, a periodical in the style of the Spectator. Two years later he became an actor, and appeared in the title-roles of Richard III. and Othello; as Biron in Southerne's Fatal Marriage; and as Osmyn in Congreve's Mourning Bride. His first farce, The Apprentice, was given at Drury Lane on the 2nd of January 1756. It was followed, among other plays, by The Upholsterer (1757), The Orphan of China (1759), The Way to Keep Him (1760), All in the Wrong (1761), The Grecian Daughter (1772), and Know Your Own Mind (1777). These were almost all adaptations from the French, and were very successful, securing for their author both fame and wealth. .Murphy edited a political periodical, called the Test, in support of Henry Fox, by whose influence he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, although he had been refused at the Middle Temple in 1757 on account of his connexion with the stage. Murphy also wrote a biography of Fielding, an essay on the life and genius of Samuel Johnson and translations of Sallust and Tacitus. Towards the close of his life the office of a commissioner of bankrupts and a pension of £200 were conferred upon him by government. He died on the i8th of June 1805. MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853- ), American landscape painter, was born at Oswego, New York, on the nth of December 1853. He first exhibited at the National Academy of Design in 1876, and was made an associate in 1885 and a full academician two years later. He became a member of the Society of American Artists (1901) and of the American Water Color Society. MURPHY, ROBERT (1806-1843), British mathematician, the son of a poor shoemaker, was born at Mallow, in Ireland, in 1806. At the age of thirteen, while working as an apprentice in his father's shop, he became known to certain gentlemen in the neighbourhood as a self-taught mathematician. Through their exertions, after attending a classical school in his native town, he was admitted to Caius College, Cambridge, in 1825. Third wrangler in 1829, he was elected in the same year a fellow of his college. A course of dissipation led him into debt; his fellowship was sequestered for the benefit of his creditors, and he was obliged to leave Cambridge in December 1832. After living for some time with his relations in Ireland, he repaired to London in 1836, a penniless literary adventurer. In 1838 he became examiner in mathematics and physics at London University. He had already contributed several mathematical papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions (1831-1836), Philosophical Magazine (1833-1842), and the Philosophical Transactions (1837), and had published Elementary Principles of the Theories of Electricity (1833). He now wrote for the " Library of Useful Knowledge " a Treatise on the Theory of Algebraical Equations (1839). He died on the i2th of March 1843. MURPHYSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, on the Big Muddy River, about 57 m. N. of Cairo. Pop. (1890), 3880; (1900), 6463, including 557 foreign-born and 456 negroes; (1910), 7485. It is served by the Illinois Central, the Mobile & Ohio and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways. It is the centre for a farming region, in which there are deposits of coal, iron, lead and shale, and there are various manufactures in the city. Murphysboro was incorporated in 1867, and re- incorporated in 1875. MURRAIN (derived through O. Fr. marine, from Lat. mori, to die), a general term for various virulent diseases in domesticated animals, synonymous with plague or epizooty. The principal diseases are dealt with under RINDERPEST; PLEURO-PNEUMONIA; ANTHRAX; and FOOT AND MOUTH PISEASE. See also VETER- INARY SCIENCE. MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF. The earldom of Moray was one of the seven original earldoms of Scotland, its lands corre- sponding roughly to the modern counties of Inverness and Ross. Little is known of the earls until about 1314, when Sir Thomas Randolph, a nephew of King Robert Bruce, was created earl of Moray (q.v.), and the Randolphs held the earldom until 1346, when the childless John Randolph, 3rd earl of this line and a soldier of repute, was killed at the battle of Neville's Cross. According to some authorities the earldom was then held by John's sister Agnes (c. 1312-1369) and her husband, Patrick Dunbar, earl of March or Dunbar (c. 1285-1368). However this may be, in 1359 an English prince, Henry Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster (d. 1361), was made earl of Moray by King David II.; but in 1372 John Dunbar (d. 1391), a graiftlson of Sir Thomas Randolph and a son-in-law of Robert II., obtained the earldom. The last of the Dunbar earls was James Dunbar, who was murdered in August 1429, and after this date his daughter Elizabeth and her husband, Archibald Douglas (d. 1455), called themselves earl and countess of Moray. The next family to bear this title was an illegitimate branch of the royal house of Stuart, James IV. creating his natural son, James Stuart (c. 1490-1544), earl of Moray. James died without sons, and after the title had been borne for a short time by George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly (c. 1514-1562), who was killed at Corrichie in 1562, it was bestowed in 1562 by Mary Queen of Scots upon her half-brother, an illegitimate son of James V. This was the famous regent, James Stuart, earl of Moray, or Murray (see below), who was murdered in January 1570; after this event a third James Stuart, who had married the regent's daughter Elizabeth (d. 1591), held the earldom. He, who was called the " bonny earl," was killed by his heredi- tary enemies, the Gordons, in February 1592, when his son James (d. 1638) succeeded to the title. The earldom of Moray has remained in the Stuart family since this date. Alexander, the 4th earl (d. 1701), was secretary of state for Scotland from 1680 to 1689; and in 1796 Francis, the 9th earl (1737-1810), was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Stuart. See vol. vi. of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul (1909). MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904), British archaeologist, was born at Arbroath on the 8th of January 1841, and educated there, at Edinburgh high school and at the universities of Edinburgh and Berlin. In 1867 he entered the British Museum as an assistant in the department of Greek and Roman antiquities under Sir Charles Newton, whom he suc- ceeded in 1886. His younger brother, George Robert Milne Murray (b. 1858), was made keeper of the botanical department in 1895, the only instance of two brothers becoming heads of departments at the museum. In 1873 Dr Murray published a Manual of Mythology, and in the following year contributed to the Contemporary Review two articles — one on the Homeric question — which led to a friendship with Mr Gladstone, the other on Greek painters. In 1880-1883 he brought out his History of Greek Sculpture, which at once became a standard work. In 1886 he was selected by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland to deliver the Rhind lectures on archaeology, out of MURRAY, D.— MURRAY, LORD GEORGE 39 which grew his Handbook of Greek Archaeology (1892). In 1894-1896 Dr Murray directed some excavations in Cyprus undertaken by means of a bequest of £2000 from Miss Emma Tournour Turner. The objects obtained are described and illustrated in Excavations in Cyprus, published by the trustees of the museum in 1900. Among Dr Murray's other official publications are three folio volumes on Terra-cotta Sarcophagi, White Athenian Vases and Designs from Greek Vases. In 1898 he wrote for the Portfolio a monograph on Greek bronzes, founded on lectures delivered at the Royal Academy in that year, and he contributed many articles on archaeology to standard publications. In recognition of his services to archaeo- logy he was made LL.D. of Glasgow University in 1887 and elected a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1900. He died in March 1904. MURRAY, DAVID (1840- ), Scottish painter, was born in Glasgow, and spent some years in commercial pursuits before he practised as an artist. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1891 and academician in 1905; and also became an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy and of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours, and a member of the Royal Scottish Water Colour Society. He is a landscape painter of distinction, and two of his pictures, " My Love is gone a-sailing " (1884) and " In the Country of Constable " (1903), have been bought for the National Gallery of British Art. " Young Wheat," painted in 1890, is one of his most noteworthy works. MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824-1881), English journalist, was born in 1824, the natural son of the 2nd duke of Buckingham. Educated at Magdalen Hall (Hertford College), Oxford, he entered the diplomatic service through the influence of Lord 'Palmerston, and in 1851 joined the British • embassy at Vienna as attache. At the same time he agreed to act as Vienna correspondent of a London daily paper, a breach of the conventions of the British Foreign Office which cost him his post. In 1852 he was transferred to Hanover, and thence to Constantinople, and finally, in 1855, was made consul-general at Odessa. In 1868 he returned to England, and devoted himself to journalism. He contributed to the early numbers of Vanity Fair, and in 1869 founded a clever but abusive society paper, the Queen's Messenger. For a libel published in this paper Lord Carrington horsewhipped him on the doorstep of a London club. Murray was subsequently charged with perjury for denying on oath his authorship of the article. Remanded on bail, he escaped to Paris, where he subsequently lived, acting as correspondent of various London papers. In 1874 he helped Edmund Yates to found the World. Murray died at Passy on the aoth of December 1881. His score of books, several of which were translated into French and published in Paris, include French Pictures in English Chalk (1876-1878); The Roving Englishman in Turkey (1854); Men of the Second Empire (1872); Young Brown (1874); Sidelights on English Society (1881) ; and Under the Lens: Social Photographs (1885). MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694-1760), Scottish Jacobite general, fifth son of John, ist duke of Atholl, by his first wife, Catherine, daughter of the 3rd duke of Hamilton, was born at Huntingtower, near Perth, on the 4th of October 1694. He joined the army in Flanders in June 1712; in 1715, contrary to their father's wishes, he and his brothers, the marquis of Tullibardine and Lord Charles Murray, joined the Jacobite rebels under the earl of Mar, each brother commanding a regiment of men of Atholl. Lord Charles was taken prisoner at Preston, but after the collapse of the rising Lord George escaped with Tullibardine to South Uist, and thence to France. In 1719 Murray took part in the Jacobite attempt in conjunction with the Spaniards in the western highlands, under the command of Tullibardine and the earl marischal, which terminated in " the affair of Glenshiel " on the roth of June, when he was wounded while commanding the right wing of the Jacobites. After hiding for some months in the highlands he reached Rotter- dam in May 1720. There is no evidence for the statement that Murray served in the Sardinian army, and little is known of his life on the continent till 1724, when he returned to Scotland, where in the following year he was granted a pardon. The duke of Atholl died in 1724 and was succeeded in the title by his second son James, owing to the attainder of Tullibardine; and Lord George leased from his brother the old family property of Tullibardine in Strathearn, where he lived till 1745. On the eve of the Jacobite rising of 1745 the duke of Perth made overtures to Lord George Murray on behalf of the Pretender; but even after the landing of Charles Edward in Scotland in July, accompanied by Tullibardine, Murray's attitude remained doubtful. He accompanied his brother the duke to Crieff on the 2ist of August to pay his respects to Sir John Cope, the commander of the government troops, and he permitted the duke to appoint him deputy-sheriff of Perthshire. It has been suggested that Murray acted with duplicity, but his hesitation was natural and genuine; and it was not till early in September, when Charles Edward was at Blair Castle, which had been vacated by the duke of Atholl on the prince's approach, that Murray decided to espouse the Stuart cause. He then wrote to his brother explaining that he did so for conscientious reasons, while realizing the risk of ruin it involved. On joining the Jacobite army Lord George received a commission as lieu- tenant-general, though the prince ostentatiously treated him with want of confidence; and he was flouted by the Irish adven- turers who were the Pretenderis trusted advisers. At Perth Lord George exerted himself with success to introduce discipline and organization in the army he was to command, and he gained the confidence of the highland levies, with whose habits and methods of fighting he was familiar. He also used his influence to prevent the exactions and arbitrary interference with civil rights which Charles was too ready to sanction on the advice of others. At Prestonpans, on the 2ist of September, Lord George, who led the Jacobite left wing in person, was practically com- mander-in-chief, and it was to his able generalship that the victory was mainly due. During the six weeks' occupation of Edinburgh he did useful work in the further organization and disciplining of the army. He opposed Charles's plan of invading England, and when his judgment was overruled he prevailed on the prince to march into Cumberland, which he knew to be favourable ground for highlander tactics, instead of advancing against General Wade, whose army was posted at Newcastle. He conducted the siege of Carlisle, but on the surrender of the town on the I4th of November he resigned his command on the ground that his authority had been insufficiently upheld by the prince, and he obtained permission to serve as a volunteer in the ranks of the Atholl levies. The dissatisfaction, however, of the army with the appointment of the duke of Perth to succeed him compelled Charles to reinstate Murray, who accord- ingly commanded the Jacobites in the march to Derby. Here on the sth of December a council was held at which Murray urged the necessity for retreat, owing to the failure of the English Jacobites to support the invasion and the absence of aid from France. As Murray was supported by the council the retreat was ordered, to the intense chagrin of Charles, who never forgave him; but the failure of the enterprise was mainly chargeable to Charles himself, and it was not without justice that Murray's aide de camp, the chevalier Johnstone, declared that " had Prince Charles slept during the whole of the expedition, and allowed Lord George Murray to act for him according to his own judgment, he would have found the crown of Great Britain on his head when he awoke." Lord George commanded the rear-guard during the retreat; and this task, rendered doubly dangerous by the proximity of Cumberland in the rear and Wade on the flank, was made still more difficult by the incapacity and petulance of the Pretender. By a skilfully fought rear- guard action at Clifton Moor, Lord George enabled the army to reach Carlisle safely and without loss of stores or war material; and on the 3rd of January 1746 the force entered Stirling, where they were joined by reinforcements from Perth. The prince laid siege to Stirling Castle, while Murray defeated General Hawley near Falkirk; but the losses of the Jacobites by sickness and desertion, and the approach of Cumberland, made retreat MURRAY, JAMES— MURRAY, EARL OF to the Highlands an immediate necessity, in which the prince was compelled to acquiesce; his resentment was such that he gave ear to groundless suggestions that Murray was a traitor, which the latter's failure to capture his brother's stronghold of Blair Castle did nothing to refute. In April 1746 the Jacobite army was in the neighbourhood of Inverness, and the prince decided to give battle to the duke of Cumberland. Charles took up a position on the left bank of the Nairn river at Culloden Moor, rejecting Lord George's Murray advice to select a much stronger position on the opposite bank. The battle of Culloden, where the Stuart cause was ruined, was fought on the i6th of April 1746. On the following day the duke of Cumberland intimated to his troops that " the public orders' of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter"; Hanoverian news-sheets printed what purported to be copies of such an order, and the historian James Ray and other con- temporary writers gave further currency to a calumny that has been repeated by modern authorities. Original copies of Lord George Murray's " orders at Culloden " are in existence, one of which is among Cumberland's own papers, while another was in the possession of Lord Hardwicke, the judge who tried the Jacobite peers in 1746, and they contain no injunction to refuse quarter. After the defeat Murray conducted a remnant of the Jacobite army to Ruthven, and prepared to organize further resistance. Prince Charles, however, had determined to aban- don the enterprise, and at Ruthven Lord George received an order dismissing him from the prince's service, to which he replied in a letter upbraiding Charles for his distrust and mismanage- ment. Charles's belief in the general's treachery was shared by several leading Jacobites, but there appears no ground for the suspicion. From the moment he threw in his lot with the exiled prince's cause Lord George Murray never deviated in his loyalty and devotion, and his generalship was deserving of the highest praise; but the discipline he enforced and jealousy of his authority made enemies of some of those to whom Charles was more inclined to listen than to the general who gave him sound but unwelcome advice. Murray escaped to the continent in December 1746, and was graciously received in Rome by the Old Pretender, who granted him a pension; but in the following year when he went to Paris Charles Edward refused to see him. Lord George lived at various places abroad until his death, which occurred at Medem- blik in Holland on the nth of October 1760. He married in 1728 Amelia, daughter and heiress of James Murray of Strowan and Glencarse, by whom he had three sons and two daughters. His eldest son John became 3rd duke of Atholl in 1764; the two younger sons became lieutenant-general and vice-admiral respectively in the British service. See A Military History of Perthshire, ed. by the marchioness of Tullibardine (2 vols., London, 1908), containing a memoir of Lord George Murray and a facsimile copy of his orders at Culloden; The Atholl Chronicles, ed. by the duke of Atholl (privately printed) ; The Chevalier James de Johnstone, Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 (jrd ed., London, 1822); James Ray, Compleat Historic of the Rebel- lion, 1745-1746 (London, 1754); Robert Patten, History of the late Rebellion (2nd ed., London, 1717); Memoirs of Sir John Murray of Brpughton, ed. by R. F. Bell (Edinburgh, 1898); Andrew Henderson, History of the Rebellion, 1745-1746 (2nd ed., London, 1748). (R. J- M.) MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1710-1794), British governor of Canada, was a younger son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank (d. 1736). Having entered the British army, he served with the 1 5th Foot in the West Indies, the Netherlands and Brittany, and became lieut.enant-colonel of this regiment by purchase in 1751. In 1757 he led his men to North America to take part in the war against France. He commanded a brigade at the siege of Louisburg, was one of Wolfe's three brigadiers in the expedition against Quebec, and commanded the left wing of the army in the famous battle in September 1759. After the British victory and the capture of the city, Murray was left in command of Quebec; having strengthened its fortifications and taken measures to improve the morale of his men, he defended it in April and May 1760 against the attacks of the French, who were soon compelled to raise the siege. The British troops had been decimated by disease, and it was only a remnant that Murray now led to join General Amherst at Montreal, and to be present when the last batch of French troops in Canada surrendered. In October 1760 he was appointed governor of Quebec, and he became governor of Canada after this country had been formally ceded to Great Britain in 1763. In this year he quelled a dangeious mutiny, and soon afterwards his alleged partiality for the interests of the French Canadians gave offence to the British settlers; they asked for his recall, and in 1766 he retired from his post. After an inquiry in the House of Lords, he was exonerated from the charges which had been brought against him. In 1774 Murray was sent to Minorca as governor, and in 1781, while he was in charge of this island, he was besieged in Fort St Philip by a large force of French and Spaniards. After a stubborn resistance, which lasted nearly seven months, he was obliged to surrender the place; and on his return to England he was tried by a court-martial, at the instance of Sir William Draper, who had served under him in Minorca as lieutenant- governor. He was acquitted and he became a general in 1783. He died on the i8th of June 1794. Murray's only son was James Patrick Murray (1782-1834), a major-general and member of parliament. MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837- ), British lexicographer, was born at Denholm, near Hawick, Roxburghshire, and after a local elementary education proceeded to Edinburgh, and thence to the university of London, where he graduated B.A. in 1873. Sir James Murray, who received honorary degrees from several universities, both British and foreign, was engaged in scholastic work for thirty years, from 1855 to 1885, chiefly at Hawick and Mill Hill. During this time his reputation as a philologist was increasing, and he was assistant examiner in English at the University of London from 1875 to 1879 and president of the Philological Society of London from 1878 to 1880, and again from 1882 to 1884. It was in connexion with this society that he undertook the chief work of his life, the editing of the New English Dictionary, based on materials collected by the society. These materials, which had accumulated since 1857, when the society first projected the publication of a dictionary on philological principles, amounted to an enormous quantity, of which an idea may be formed from the fact that Dr Furnivall sent in " some ton and three-quarters of materials which had accumulated under his roof." After negotiations extending over a considerable period, the contracts between the society, the delegates of the Clarendon Press, and the editor, were signed on the ist of March 1879, and Murray began the examination and arrangement of the raw material, and the still more troublesome work of re-animating and main- taining the enthusiasm of " readers." In 1885 he removed from Mill Hill to Oxford, where his Scriptorium came to rank among the institutions of the University city. The first volume of the dictionary was printed at the Clarendon Press, Oxford, in 1888. A full account of its beginning and the manner of working up the materials will be found in Murray 's presidential address to the Philological Society in 1879, while reports of its progress are given in the addresses by himself and other presidents in subsequent years. In addition to his work as a philologist, Murray was a frequent contributor to the transac- tions of the various antiquarian and archaeological societies of which he is a member; and he wrote the article on the English language for this Encyclopaedia. In 1885 he received the honorary degree of M.A. from Balliol College; he was an original fellow of the British Academy, and in 1908 he was knighted. MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531- 1570), regent of Scotland, was an illegitimate son of James V. of Scotland by Margaret Erskine, daughter of John Erskine, earl of Mar. In 1538 he was appointed prior of the abbey of St Andrews in order that James V. might obtain possession of its funds. Educated at St Andrews University, he attacked, in September 1549, an English force which had made a descent on the Fife coast, and routed it with great slaughter. In addition to the priory of St Andrews, he received those also of Pittenweem and Macon in France, but manifested no vocation MURRAY, JOHN for a monastic life. The discourses of Knox, which he heard at Calder, won his approval, and shortly after the return of the reformer to Scotland in 1559, James Stuart left the party of the queen regent and joined the lords of the congregation, who resolved forcibly to abolish the Roman service. After the return of Queen Mary in 1561, he became her chief adviser, and his cautious firmness was for a time effectual in inducing her to adopt a policy of moderation towards the reformers. At the beginning of 1562 he was created earl of Murray, a dignity also held by George Gordon, earl of Huntly, who, however, had lost the queen's favour. Only a few days later he was made earl of Mar,*but as this title was claimed by John, Lord Erskine, Stuart resigned it and received a second grant of the earldom of Murray, Huntly by this time having been killed in battle. Henceforward he was known as the earl of Moray, the alternative Murray being a more modern and less correct variant. About this time the earl married Anne (d. 1583), daughter of William Keith, ist Earl Marischal. After the defeat and death of Huntly, the leader of the Catholic party, the policy of Murray met for a time with no obstacle, but he awakened the displeasure of the queen by his efforts in behalf of Knox when the latter was accused of high treason; and as he was also opposed to her marriage with Darnley, he was after that event declared an outlaw and took refuge in England. Returning to Scotland after the murder of Rizzio, he was pardoned by the queen. He contrived, however, to be away at the time of Darnley's assassination, and avoided the tangles of the marriage with Bothwell by going to France. After the abdication of Queen Mary at Lochleven, in July 1567, he was appointed regent of Scotland. When Mary escaped from Lochleven (May 2, 1568), the duke of Chatel- herault and other Catholic nobles rallied to her standard, but Murray and the Protestant lords gathered their adherents, defeated her forces at Langside, near Glasgow (May 13, 1568), and compelled her to flee to England. Murray displayed promptness in baffling Mary's schemes, suppressed the border thieves, and ruled firmly, resisting the temptation to place the crown on his own head. He observed the forms of personal piety; possibly he shared the zeal of the reformers, while he moderated their bigotry. But he reaped the fruits of the conspiracies which led to the murders of Rizzio and Darnley. He amassed too great a fortune from the estates of the Church to be deemed a pure reformer of its abuses. He pursued his sister with a calculated animosity which would not have spared her life had this been necessary to his end or been favoured by Elizabeth. The mode of producing the casket letters and the false charges added by Buchanan, deprive Murray of any claim to have been an honest accuser. His reluctance to charge Mary with complicity in the murder of Darnley was feigned, and his object was gained when he was allowed to table the accusation without being forced to prove it. Mary remained a captive under suspicion of the gravest guilt, while Murray ruled Scotland in her stead, supported by nobles who had taken part in the steps which ended in Bothwell's deed. During the year between his becoming regent and his death several events occurred for which he has been censured, but which were necessary for his security: the betrayal to Elizabeth of the duke of Norfolk and of the secret plot for the liberation of Mary; the imprisonment of the earl of Northumberland, who after the failure of his rising in the north of England had taken refuge in Scotland; and the charge brought against Maitland of Leth- ington of complicity in Darnley's murder. Lethington was committed to custody, but was rescued by Kirkaldy of Grange, who held the castle of Edinburgh, and while there " the chame- leon," as Buchanan named Maitland hi his famous invective, gained over those in the castle, including Kirkaldy. Murray was afraid to proceed with the charge on the day of trial, while Kirkaldy and Maitland held the castle, which became the stronghold of the deposed queen's party. It has been suspected that Maitland and Kirkaldy were cognizant of the design of Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh to murder Murray, for he had been with them in the castle. This has been ascribed to private vengeance for the ill-treat inent of his wife; but the feud of the Hamiltons with the regent is the most reasonable explanation. As he rode through Linlithgow Murray was shot on the 2ist of January 1570 from a window by Hamilton, who had made careful preparation for the murder and his own escape. He was buried in the south aisle of St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, amid general mourning. Knox preached the sermon and Buchanan furnished the epitaph, both panegyrics. The elder of his two daughters, Elizabeth, married James Stuart (d. 1592), son of James, ist Lord Doune, who succeeded to the earldom of Murray in right of his wife. The materials for the life of Murray are found in the records and documents of the time, prominent among which are the various Calendars of State Papers. Mention must also be made of the many books which treat of Mary, Queen of Scots, and of the histories of the time-^- especially J. A. Froude, History of England, and Andrew Lang, History of Scotland. MURRAY, JOHN, the name for several generations of a great firm of London publishers, founded by John McMurray (1745- I793). a native of Edinburgh and a retired lieutenant of marines, who in 1768 bought the book business of William Sandby in Fleet Street, and, dropping the Scottish prefix, called himself John Murray. He was one of the twenty original proprietors of the Morning Chronicle, and started the monthly English Review (1783-1796). Among his publications were Mjtford's Greece, Langhorne's Plutarch's Lives, and the first part of Isaac D 'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature. He died on the 6th of November 1793. JOHN MURRAY (2) (1778-1843), his son, was then fifteen. During his minority the business was conducted by Samuel Highley, who was admitted a partner, but in 1803 the partner- ship was dissolved. Murray soon began to show the courage in literary speculation which earned for him later the name given him by Lord Byron of " the Anak of publishers." In 1807 he took a share with Constable in publishing Marmion, and became part owner of the Edinburgh Review, although with the help of Canning he launched in opposition the Quarterly Review (Feb. 1809), with William Gifford as its editor, and Scott, Canning, Southey, Hookham Frere and John Wilson Croker among its earliest contributors. Murray was closely connected with Constable, but, to his distress, was compelled in 1813 to break this association on account of Constable's business methods, which, as he foresaw, led to disaster. In 1811 the first two cantos of Childe Harold were brought to Murray by R. C. Dallas, to whom Byron had presented them. Murray paid Dallas 500 guineas for the copyright. In 1812 he bought the pub- lishing business of William Miller (1769-1844), and migrated to 50, Albemarle Street. Literary London flocked to his house, and Murray became the centre of the publishing world. It was in his drawing-room that Scott and Byron first met, and here, in 1824, after the death of Lord Byron, the MS. of his memoirs, considered by Gifford unfit for publication, was destroyed. A close friendship existed between Byron and his publisher, but for political reasons business relations ceased after the publication of the 5th canto of Don Juan. Murray paid Byron some £20,000 for his various poems. To Thomas Moore he gave nearly £5000 for writing the life of Byron, and to Crabbe £3000 for Tales of the Hall. He died on the 27th of June 1843. His son, JOHN MURRAY (3) (1808-1892), inherited much of his business tact and judgment. " Murray's Handbooks " for travellers were issued under his editorship, and he himself wrote several volumes (see his article on the " Handbooks " in Murray's Magazine, November 1889). He published many books of travel; also Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, The Speaker's Commentary, Smith's Dictionaries; and works by Hallam, Gladstone, Lyell, Layard, Dean Stanley, Borrow, Darwin, Living- stone and Samuel Smiles. He died on the 2nd of April 1892, and was succeeded by his eldest son, JOHN MURRAY (4) (b. 1851), under whom, in association with his brother, A. H. Hallam Murray, the firm was continued. See Samuel Smiles, A Publisher and his Friends, Memoirs and Correspondence of the late John Murray . . . (1891), for the second John Murray; a series of three articles by F. Espinasse on " The MURRAY, J.— MURREE House of Murray," in The Critic (Jan. 1860) ; and a paper by the same writer in Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Sept. 1885). See the Letters and Journals of Byron (ed. Prothero, 1898-1901). MURRAY, JOHN (1778-1820), Scottish chemist, was born at Edinburgh in 1778 and died there on the 22nd of July 1820. He graduated M.D. at St Andrews in 1814, and attained some reputation as a lecturer on chemistry and materia medica. He was an opponent of Sir Humphry Davy's theory of chlorine, supporting the view that the substance contained oxygen, and it was in the course of experiments made to disprove his argu- ments that Dr John Davy discovered phosgene or carbonyl chloride. He was a diligent writer of textbooks, including Elements of Chemistry (1801); Elements of Materia Medica and Pharmacy (1804), A System of Chemistry (1806), and (anony- mously) A Comparative View of the Huttonian and Neptunian Systems of Geology. He is sometimes confused with another John Murray (1786-1851), a popular lecturer at mechanics' institutes. The two men carried on a dispute about the inven- tion of a miners' safety lamp in the Phil. Mag. for 1817. MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841- ), British geographer and naturalist, was born at Coburg, Ontario, Canada, on the 3rd of March 1841, and after some years' local schooling studied in Scotland and on the Continent. He was then engaged for some years in natural history work at Bridge of Allan. In 1868 he visited Spitsbergen on a whaler, and in 1872, when the voyage of the " Challenger " was projected, he was appointed one of the naturalists to the expedition. At the conclusion of the voyage he was made principal assistant in drawing up the scientific results, and in 1882 he became editor of the Reports, which were completed in 1896. He compiled a summary of the results, and was part-author of the Narrative of the Cruise and of the Report on Deep-sea Deposits. He also published numerous important papers on oceanography and marine biology. In 1898 he was made K.C.B., and the received many distinctions from the chief scientific societies of the world. Apart from his work in connexion with the " Challenger " Reports, he went in 1880 and 1882 on expeditions to explore the Faeroe Channel, and between 1882 and 1894 was the prime mover in various biological investigations in Scottish waters. In 1897, with the generous financial assistance of Mr Laurence Pullar and a staff of specialists, he began a bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland, the results of which, with a fine series of illustrations and maps, were published in 1910 in six volumes. He took a leading part in the expedition which started in April 1910 for the physiological and biological investigation of the North Atlantic Ocean on the Norwegian vessel " Michael Sars." MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745-1826), Anglo-American gram- marian, was born at Swatara, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of April 1745. His father, a Quaker, was a leading New York merchant. At the age of fourteen he was placed in his father's office, but he ran away to a school in Burlington, New Jersey. He was brought back to New York, but his arguments against a commercial career prevailed, and he was allowed to study law. On being called to the bar he practised successfully in New York. In 1783 he was able to retire, and in 1784 he left America for England. Settling at Holgate, near York, he devoted the rest of his life to literary pursuits. His first book was Power of Religion on the Mind (1787). In 1795 he issued his Grammar of the English Language. This was followed, among other analogous works, by English Exercises, and the English Reader. These books passed through several editions, and the Grammar was the standard textbook for fifty years throughout England and America. Lindley Murray died on the i6th of January 1826. See the Memoir o/_ the Life and Writings of Lindley Murray (partly autobiographical), by Elizabeth Frank (1826); Life of Murray, by W. H. Egle (New York, 1885). MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673), one- of the founders of the Royal Society, was the son of Sir Robert , Murray of Craigie, Ayrshire, and was born about the beginning of the i-7th century. In early life he served in the French army, and, winning the favour of Richelieu, rose to the rank of colonel. On the outbreak of the Civil War he returned to Scotland and collected recruits for the royal cause. The triumph of Ciomwell compelled him for a time to return to France, but he took part in the Scottish insurrection in favour of Charles II. in 1650, and was named lord justice clerk and a privy councillor. These appointments, which on account of the overthrow of the royal cause proved to be at the time only nominal, were confirmed at the Restoration in 1660. Soon after this Sir Robert Murray began to take a prominent part in the deliberations of a club instituted in London for the discussion of natural science, or, as it was then called, the " new philosophy." When it was proposed to obtain a charter for the society he undertook to interest the king in the matter, the result being that on the i5th of July 1662 the club was incorporated by charter under the designation of the Royal Society. Murray was its first president. He died in June 1673. MURRAY, the largest river in Australia. It rises in the Australian Alps in 36° 40' S. and 147° E., and flowing north-west skirts the borders of New South Wales and Victoria until it passes into South Australia, shortly after which it bends south- ward into Lake Alexandrina, a shallow lagoon, whence it makes its way to the sea at Encounter Bay by a narrow opening at 35° 35' S. and 138° 55' E. Near its source the Murray Gates, precipitous rocks, tower above it to the height of 3000 ft.; and the earlier part of its course is tortuous and uneven. Farther on it loses so much by evaporation in some parts as to become a series of pools. Its length till it debouches into Lake Alexandrina is 1120 m., its average breadth in summer is 240 ft., its average depth about i6ft.;and it drains an area of about 270,000 sq. m. For small steamers it is navigable as far as Albury. Periodically it overflows, causing wide inundations. The principal tributaries of the Murray are those from New South Wales, including the Edward River, the united streams of the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan, and the Darling or Callewatta. In 1829 Captain Sturt traced the Murrumbidgee River till it debouched into the Murray, which he followed down to Lake Alexandrina, but he was compelled, after great hardships, to return without discovering its mouth. In 1831 Captain Barker, while attempting to discover this, was murdered by the natives. MURRAY COD (Oligorus macquariensis) , one of the largest of the numerous fresh-water Perciform fishes of Australia, and the most celebrated for its excellent flavour. It belongs to the family Serranidae. Its taxonomic affinities lie in the direc- tion of the perch and not of the cod family. The shape of the body is that of a perch, and the dorsal fin consists of a spinous Murray Cod. and rayed portion, the number of spines being eleven. The length of the spines varies with age, old individuals having shorter spines — that is, a lower dorsal fin. The form of the head and the dentition also resemble those of a perch, but none of the bones of the head has a serrated margin. The scales are small. The colour varies in different localities; it is generally brownish, with a greenish tinge and numerous small dark green spots. As implied by the name, this fish has its headquarters in the Murray River and its tributaries, but it occurs also in the northern parts of New South Wales. It is the most important food fish of these rivers, and is said to attain a length of more than 3 ft. and a weight of 1 20 Ib. MURREE, a town and sanatorium of British India, in the Rawalpindi district of the Punjab, 7517 ft. above the sea. about five hours' journey by cart-road from Rawalpindi town, and the starting-point for Kashmir. The houses are built on the MURSHIDABAD— MUSCAT 43 summit and sides of an irregular ridge, and command magnifi- cent views over forest-clad hills and deep valleys, studded with villages and cultivated fields, with the snow-covered peaks of Kashmir in the background. The population in 1901 was 1844;^ but these figures omit the summer visitors, who probably number 10,000. The garrison generally consists of three mountain batteries. Since 1877 the summer offices of the provincial government have been transferred to Simla. The Murree brewery, one of the largest in India, is the chief industrial establishment. The Lawrence Military Asylum for the children of European soldiers is situated here. MURSHIDABAD, or MOORSHEEDABAD, a town and district of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The administrative headquarters of the district are at Berhampur. The town of Murshidabad is on the left bank of the Bhagirathi or old sacred channel of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 15,168. The city of Murshidabad was the latest Mahommedan capital of Bengal. In 1704 the nawab Murshid Kulia Khan changed the seat of government from Dacca to Maksudabad, which he called after his own name. The great family of Jagat Seth maintained their position as state bankers at Murshidabad from generation to generation. Even after the conquest of Bengal by the British, Murshidabad remained for some time the seat of administration. Warren Hastings removed the supreme civil and criminal courts to Calcutta in 1772, but in 1775 the latter court was brought back to Murshidabad again. In 1 790, under Lord Cornwallis, the entire revenue and judicial staffs were fixed at Calcutta. The town is still the residence of the nawab, who ranks as the first nobleman of the province with the style of nawab bahadur of Murshidabad, instead of nawab nazim of Bengal. His palace, dating from 1837, is a magnificent building in Italian style. The city is crowded with other palaces, mosques, tombs, and gardens, and retains such industries as carving in ivory, gold and silver embroidery, and silk-weaving. A college is maintained for the education of the nawab 's family. The DISTRICT OF MURSHIDABAD has an area of 2143 sq. m. It is divided into two nearly equal portions by the Bhagirathi, the ancient channel of the Ganges. The tract to the west, known as the Rarh, consists of hard clay and nodular limestone. The general level is high, but interspersed with marshes and seamed by hill torrents. The Bagri or eastern half belongs to alluvial plains of eastern Bengal. There are few permanent swamps; but the whole country is low-lying, and liable to annual inundation. In the north-west are a few small detached hillocks, said to be of basaltic formation. Pop. (1901), 1,333,184, show- ing an increase of 6-6% in the decade. The principal industry is that of silk, formerly of much importance, and now revived with government assistance. A narrow-gauge railway crosses the district, from the East Indian line at Nalhati to Azimganj on the Bhagirathi, the home of many rich Jain merchants; and a branch of the Eastern Bengal railway has been opened. HUS, the name of a Roman family of the plebeian Decian gens, (i) PUBLICS DECIUS Mus won his first laurels in the Samnite War, when in 343 B.C., while serving as tribune of the soldiers, he rescued the Roman main army* frdm an apparently hopeless position (Livy vii. 34). In 340, as consul with T. Manlius Torquatus as colleague, he commanded in the Latin War. The decisive battle was fought near Mt Vesuvius. The consuls, in consequence of a dream, had agreed that the general whose troops first gave way should devote himself to destruction, and so ensure victory. The left wing under Decius became disordered, whereupon, repeating after the chief pontiff the solemn formula of self-devotion he dashed into the ranks of the Latins, and met his death (Livy viii. 9). (2) His son, also called PUBLIUS, consul for the fourth time in 295, followed the example of his father at the battle of Sentinum, when the left wing which he commanded was shaken by the Gauls (Livy x. 28). The story of the elder Decius is regarded by Mommsen as an unhistorical " doublette " of what is related on better authority of the son. MUSAEUS, the name of three Greek poets, (i) The first was a mythical seer and priest, the pupil or son of Orpheus, who was said to have been the founder of priestly poetry in Attica. According to Pausanias (i. 25) he was buried on the Museum hill, south-west of the Acropolis. He composed dedicatory and purificatory hymns and prose treatises, and oracular responses. These were collected and arranged in the time of Peisistratus by Onomacritus, who added interpolations. The mystic and oracular verses and customs of Attica, especially of Eleusis, are connected with his name (Herod, vii. 6; viii. 96; ix. 43). A Titanomachia and Theogonia are also attributed to him (G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenla, 1878). (2) The second was an Ephesian attached to the court of the kings of Pergamum, who wrote a Perseis, and poems on Eumenes and Attalus (Suidas, s.v.). (3) The third (called Grammaticus in all the MSS.) is of uncertain date, but probably belongs to the beginning of the 6th century A.D., as his style and metre are evidently modelled after Nonnus. He must have lived before Agathias (530-582) and is possibly to be identified with the friend of Procopius whose poem (340 hexameter lines) on the story of Hero and Leander is by far the most beautiful of the age (editions by F. Passow, 1810; G. H. Schafer, 1825; C. Dilthey, 1874). The little love-poem Alpheus and Arethusa (Anthol. pal. ix. 362) is also ascribed to Musaeus. MUSA KHEL, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border of the Punjab province of India. They are of Kakar origin, numbering 4670 fighting men. They enter British territory by the Vihowa Pass, and carry on an extensive trade, but are not dependent on India for the necessaries of life. They are a peaceful and united race, and have been friendly to the British, but at enmity with the Khetrans and the Baluch tribes to the south of their country. In 1879 the Musa Khels and other Pathan tribes to the number of 5000 made a demonstration against Vihowa, but the town was reinforced and they dispersed. In 1884 they were punished, together with the Kakars, by the Zhob Valley Expedition. MUSA' US, JOHANN KARL AUGUST (1735-1787), German author, was born on the 29th of March 1735 at Jena, studied theology at the university, and would have become the pastor of a parish but for the resistance of some peasants, who objected that he had been known to dance. In 1760 to 1762 he published in three volumes his first work, Grandison der Zweite, afterwards (in 1781-1782) rewritten and issued with a new title, Der deutsche Grandison. The object of this book was to satirize Samuel Richardson's hero, who had many sentimental admirers in Germany. In 1763 Musaus was made master of the court pages at Weimar, and in 1769 he became professor at the Weimar gymnasium. His second book — Physiognomische Reisen — did not appear until 1778-1779. It was directed against Lavater, and attracted much favourable attention. In 1782 to 1786 he published his best work Volksmiirchen der Deutschen. Even in this series of tales, the substance of which Musaus collected among the people, he could not refrain from satire. The stories, therefore, lack the simplicity of genuine folk-lore. In 1785 was issued Freund Heins Erscheinungen in Holbeins Manier by J. R. Schellenberg, with explanations in prose and verse by Musaus. A collection of stories entitled Straussfedern, of which a volume appeared in 1787, Musaus was prevented from com- pleting by his death on the 28th of October 1787. The Volksmiirchen have been frequently reprinted (Dusseldorf, 1903, &c.). They were translated into French in 1844, and three of the stories are included in Carlyle's German Romance (1827); Musaus's Nachgelassene Scriften were edited by his relative, A. von Kotzebue (1791). See M. Miiller, /. K. A. Musaus (1867), and an essay by A. Stern in Beitrdge zur Literaturgeschichte des 18. Jahr- hunderts (1893). MUSCAT, MUSKAT or MASKAT, a town on the south-east coast of Arabia, capital of the province of Oman. Its value as a naval base is derived from its position, which commands the entrance to the Persian Gulf. The town of Gwadar, the chief port of Makr5n, belongs to Muscat, and by arrangement with the sultan the British occupy that port with a telegraph station of the Indo-Persian telegraph service. An Indian political residency is established at Muscat. In geographical 44 MUSCATINE— MUSCLE AND NERVE position it is isolated from the interior of the continent. The mountains rise behind it in a rugged wall, across which no road exists. It is only from Matrah, a northern suburb shut off by an intervening spur which reaches to the sea, that land com- munication with the rest of Arabia can be maintained. Both Muscat and Matrah are defended from incursions on the land- ward side by a wall with towers at intervals. Muscat rose to importance with the Portuguese occupation of the Persian Gulf, and is noted for the extent of Portuguese ruins about it. Two lofty forts, of which the most easterly is called Jalali and the western Merani, occupy the summits of hills on either side the cove overlooking the town; and beyond them on the seaward side are two smaller defensive works called Sirat. All these are ruinous. A low sandy isthmus connects the rock and fortress of Jalali with the mainland, and upon this isthmus stands the British residency. The sultan's palace is a three-storeyed building near the centre of the town, a relic of Portuguese occupation, called by the Arabs El Jereza, a corruption of Igrezia (church). This term is probably derived from the chapel once attached to the buildings which formed the Portuguese governor's residence and factory. The bazaar is insignificant, and its most considerable trade appears to be in a sweetmeat prepared from the gluten of maize. Large quantities of dates are also exported. History. — The early history of Muscat is the history of Portu- guese ascendancy in the Persian Gulf. When Albuquerque first burnt the place after destroying Karyat in 1508, Kalhat was the chief port of the coast and Muscat was comparatively unimportant. Kalhat was subsequently sacked and burnt, the great Arab mosque being destroyed, before Albuquerque returned to his ships, " giving many thanks to our Lord." From that date, through 114 years of Portuguese ascendancy, Muscat was held as a naval station and factory during a period of local revolts, Arab incursions, and Turkish invasion by sea; but it was not till 1622, when the Portuguese lost Hormuz, that Muscat became the headquarters of their fleet and the most important place held by them on the Arabian coast. In 1650 the Portu- guese were finally expelled from Oman. Muscat had been reduced previously by the humiliating terms imposed upon the garrison by the imam of Oman after a siege in 1648. For five years the Persians occupied Oman, but they disappeared in 1741. Under the great ruler of Oman, Said ibn Sultan (1804- 1856), the fortunes of Muscat attained their zenith; but on his death, when his kingdom was divided and the African possessions were parted from western Arabia, Muscat declined. In 1883- 1884, when Turki was sultan, the town was unsuccessfully besieged by the Indabayin and Rehbayin tribes, led by Abdul Aziz, the brother of Turki. In 1885 Colonel Miles, resident at Muscat, made a tour through Oman, following the footsteps of Wellsted in 1835, and confirmed that traveller's report of the fertility and wealth of the province. In 1898 the French acquired the right to use Muscat as a coaling station. See Stiffe, " Trading Ports of Persian Gulf," vol. ix. Geog. Journal, and the political reports of the Indian government from the Persian Gulf. Colonel Miles's explorations in Oman will be found in vol. vii. Geog. Journal (1896). (T. H. H.*) MUSCATINE, a city and the county-seat of Muscatine county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river (here crossed by a wagon bridge), at the apex of the " great bend," in the south-east part of the state. Pop. (1890), 11,454; (1900), 14,073, of whom 2352 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,178. It is served by the Chicago Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago Rock Island & Pacific, and the Muscatine North & South railways. It is built on high rocky bluffs, and is the centre of a pearl- button industry introduced in 1891 by J. F. Boepple, a German, the buttons being made from the shells of the fresh-water mussel found in the neighbourhood; and there are other manu- factures. Coal is mined in the vicinity, and near the city are large market-gardens, the water-melons growing on Muscatine Island (below the city) and sweet potatoes being their most important products. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Muscatine began as a trading-post in 1833. It was laid out in 1836, incorporated as a town under the name of Bloomington in 1839, and first chartered as a city, under its present name, in 1851. MUSCHELKALK, in geology, the middle member of the German Trias. It consists of a series of calcareous, marly and dolomitic beds which lie conformably between the Bunter and Keuper formations. The name Muschelkalk (Fr., calcaire coquillier; conchylien, formation of D'Orbigny) indicates a characteristic feature in this series, viz. the frequent occurrence of lenticular banks composed of fossil shells, remarkable in the midst of a singularly barren group. In its typical form the Muschelkalk is practically restricted to the German region and its immediate neighbourhood; it is found in Thuringia, Harz, Franconia, Hesse, Swabia. and the Saar and Alsace districts. Northward it extends into Silesia, Poland and Heligo- land. Representatives are found in the Alps, west and south of the Vosges, in Moravia, near Toulon and Montpellier, in Spain and Sardinia; in Rumania, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and beyond this into Asia in the Himalayas, China, Australia, California, and in North Africa (Constantine). From the nature of the deposits, as well as from the impoverished fauna, the Muschelkalk of the type area was probably laid down within a land-locked sea which, in the earlier portion of its existence, had only imperfect communications with the more open waters of the period. The more remote representatives of the formation were of course deposited in diverse conditions, and are only to be correlated through the presence of some of the Muschelkalk fossils. In the " German " area the Muschelkalk is from 250-350 ft. thick; it is readily divisible into three groups, of which the upper and lower are pale thin-bedded limestones with greenish- grey marls, the middle group being mainly composed of gypsiferous and saliniferous marls with dolomite. The Lower Muschelkalk consists, from below upwards, of the following rocks, the ochreous Wellen Dolomit, lower Wellen Kalk, upper Wellen Kalk (so called on account of the wavy character of the bedding) with beds of " Schaumkalk " (a porous cellular lime- stone), and Oolite and the Orbicularis beds (with Myophoria orbicularis) . In the Saar and Alsace districts and north Eifel, these beds take on a sandy aspect, the " Muschelsandstein." The Middle Muschelkalk or Anhydrite group, as already indi- cated, consists mainly of marls and dolomites with beds of anhydrite, gypsum and salt. The salt beds are worked at Hall, Friedrichshall, Heilbronn, Stettin and Erfurt. It is from this division that many of the mineral springs of Thuringia and south Germany obtain their saline contents. The cellular nature of much of the dolomite has given rise to the term " Zellendolomit." The Upper Muschelkalk (Hauptmuschelkalk, Friedrichshallkalk of von Alberti) consists of regular beds of shelly limestone alternating with beds of marl. The lower portion or " Trochitenkalk " is often composed entirely of the fragmentary stems of Encrinus liliiformis; higher up come the " Nodosus " beds with Ceratites compressus, C. nodosus, and C. semipartitus in ascending order. In Swabia and Franconia the highest beds are platy dolomites with Tringonodus Sander- gensis and the crustacean Bairdia. Stylolites are common in all the Muschelkalk limestones. The Alpine Muschelkalk differs in many respects from that of the type area, and shows a closer relationship with the Triassic Mediterranean sea; the more important local phases will be found tabulated in the article TRIAS. In addition to the fossils mentioned above, the following are Muschelkalk forms: Terebratulina vulgaris, Spiriferina Mantzeli and 5. hirsuta, Myophoria vulgaris, Rhynchotites hirundo, Ceratites Miinsteri, Ptychites studeri, Balatonites balatonicus, Aspidura scutel- lata, Daonella Lommeli, and in the Alpine region several rock- forming Algae, Bactryllium, Gyroporella, Diplopora, &c. (J. A. H.) MUSCLE AND NERVE (Physiology).1 Among the properties of living material there is one, widely though not universally present in it, which forms the pre-eminent characteristic of 'The anatomy of the muscles is dealt with under MUSCULAR SYSTEM, and of the nerves under NERVE and NERVOUS SYSTEM. MUSCLE AND NERVE 45 muscular cells. This property is the liberation of some of the energy contained in the chemical compounds of the cells in such a way as to give mechanical work. The mechanical work is obtained by movement resulting from a change, it is supposed, in the elastic tension of the framework of the living cell. In the fibrils existing in the cell a sudden alteration of elasticity occurs, resulting in an increased tension on the points of attachment of the cell to the neighbouring elements of the tissue in which the cell is placed. These yield under the strain, and tne cell shortens between those points of its attachment. This shortening is called contraction. But the volume of the cell is not Mm'™" " appreciably altered, despite the change of its shape, for its one diameter increases in proportion as its other is diminished. The manifestations of contractility by muscle are various in mode. By tonic contraction is meant a prolonged and equable state of tension which yields under analysis no element of intermittent character. This is mani- fested by the muscular walls of the hollow viscera and of the heart, where it is the expression of a continuous liberation of energy in process in the muscular tissue, the outcome of the latter's own intrinsic life, and largely independent of any con- nexion with the nervous system. The muscular wall of the blood-vessels also exhibits tonic contraction, which, however, seems to be mainly traceable to a continual excitation of the muscle cells by nervous influence conveyed to them along their nerves, and originating in the great vaso motor centre in the bulb. In the ordinary striped muscles of the skeletal musculature, e.g. gastrocnemius, tonic contraction obtains; but this, like the last mentioned, is not autochthonous in the muscles themselves; it is indirect and neural, and appears to be maintained reflexly. The receptive organs of the muscular sense and of the semi- circular canals are to be regarded as the sites of origin of this reflex tonus of the skeletal muscles. Striped muscles possessing an autochthonous tonus appear to be the various sphincter muscles. Another mode of manifestation of contractility by muscles is the rhythmic. A tendency to rhythmic contraction seems dis- coverable in almost all muscles. In some it is very marked, for example in some viscera, the spleen, the bladder, the ureter, the uterus, the intestine, and especially in the heart. In several of these it appears not unlikely that the recurrent explosive libera- tions of energy in the muscle tissue are not secondary to recurrent explosions in nerve cells, but are attributable to decompositions arising sua sponte in the chemical substances of the muscle cells themselves in the course of their living. Even small strips of the muscle of the heart, if taken immediately after the death of the animal, continue, when kept moist and warm and supplied with oxygen, to " beat " rhythmically for hours. Rhythmic contraction is also characteristic of certain groups of skeletal muscles, e.g. the respiratory. In these the rhythmic activity is, however, clearly secondary to rhythmic discharges of the nerve cells constituting the respiratory centre in the bulb. Such discharges descend the nerve fibres of the spinal cord, and through 'the intermediation of various spinal nerve cells excite the respiratory muscles through their motor nerves. A form of contraction intermediate in character between the tonic and the rhythmic is met in the auricle of the heart of the toad. There slowly successive phases of increased and of diminished tonus regularly alternate, and upon them are superposed the rhythmic " beats " of the pulsating heart. " The beat," i.e. the short-lasting explosive contraction of the heart muscle, can be elicited by a single, even momentary, application of a stimulus, e.g. by an induction shock. Similarly, such a single stimulus elicits from a skeletal muscle a single " beat," or, as it is termed, a " twitch." In the heart muscle during a brief period after each beat, that is, after each single contraction of the rhythmic series, the muscle becomes inexcitable. It cannot then be excited to contract by any agent, though the inexcitable period is more brief for strong than for weak stimuli. But in the skeletal, voluntary or striped muscles a second stimulus succeeding a previous so Excit- ability. quickly as to fall even during the continuance of the contraction excited by a first, elicits a second contraction. This second contraction starts from whatever phase of previous contraction the muscle may have reached at the time. A third stimulus excites a third additional contraction, a fourth a fourth, and so on. The increments of contraction become, however, less and less, until the succeeding stimuli serve merely to maintain, not to augment, the existing degree of contraction. We arrive thus by synthesis at a summation of " beats " or of simple contrac- tions in the compound, or " tetanic," or summed contraction of the skeletal muscles. The tetanic or summed contractions are more extensive than the simple, both in space and time, and liberate more energy, both as mechanical work and heat. The tension developed by their means in the muscle is many times greater than that developed by a simple twitch. Muscle cells respond by changes in their activity to changes in their environment, and thus are said to be " excitable." They are, however, less excitable than are the nerve cells which innervate them. The change which excites them is termed a stimulus. The least stimulus which suffices to excite is known as the stimulus of threshold value. In the case of the heart muscle this threshold stimulus evokes a beat as extensive as does the strongest stimulus; that is, the intensity of the stimulus, so long as it is above threshold value, is not a function of the amount of the muscular response. But in the ordinary skeletal muscles the amount of the muscular contraction is for a short range of quantities of stimulus (of above threshold value) proportioned to the intensity of the stimulus and increases with it. A value of stimulus, however, is soon reached which evokes a maximal contraction. Further increase of contraction does not follow further increase of the intensity of the stimulus above that point. Just as in a nerve fibre, when excited by a localized stimulus, the excited state spreads from the excited point to the adjacent unexcited ones, so in muscle the " contraction," when excited at a point, spreads to the adjacent uncontracted parts. Both in muscle and in nerve this spread is termed conduction. It is propagated along the muscle fibres of the skeletal muscles at a rate of about 3 metres per second. In the heart muscle it travels much more slowly. The disturbance travels as a wave of contraction, and the whole extent of the wave-like disturbance measures in ordinary muscles much more than the whole length of any single muscle fibre. That the excited state spreads only to previously unexcited portions of the muscle fibre shows that even in the skeletal variety of muscle there exists, though only for a very brief time, a period of inexcitability. The duration of this period is about yj"tr of a second in skeletal muscle. When muscle that has remained inactive for some time is excited by a series of single and equal stimuli succeeding at intervals too prolonged to cause summation the succeeding contractions exhibit progressive increase up to a certain degree. The tenth contraction usually exhibits the culmination of this so-called " staircase effect." The explanation may lie in the production of CO? in the muscle. That substance, in small doses, favours the contractile power of muscle. The muscle is a machine for utilizing the energy contained in its own chemical compounds. It is not surprising that the chemical substances produced in it by the decomposition of its living material should not be of a nature indifferent for muscular life. We find that if the series of excitations of the muscle be prolonged beyond the short stage of initial improvement, the contractions, after being well maintained for a time, later decline in force and speed, and ultimately dwindle even to vanishing point. This decline is said to be due to muscular fatigue. The muscle recovers on being allowed to rest unstimulated for a while, and more quickly on being washed with an innocuous but non- nutritious solution, such as -6%, NaCl in water. The washing seems to remove excreta of the muscle's own production, and the period of repose removes them perhaps by diffusion, perhaps by breaking them down into innocuous material. Since the 46 MUSCLE AND NERVE Neuron Theory. muscle produces lactic acids during activity, it has been sug- gested that acids are among the " fatigue substances " with which muscle poisons itself when deprived of circulating blood. Muscles when active seem to pour into the circulation substances which, of unknown chemical composition, are physiologically recognizable by their stimulant action on the respiratory nervous centre. The effect of the fatigue substances upon the contrac- tion of the tissue is manifest especially in the relaxation process. The contracted state, instead of rapidly subsiding after dis- continuance of the stimulus, slowly and only partially wears off, the muscle remaining in a condition of physiological " contracture." The alkaloid veratrin has a similar effect upon the contraction of muscle; it enormously delays the return from the contracted state, as also does epinephrin, an alkaloid extracted from the suprarenal gland. Nervous System. — The work of Camillo Golgi (Pavia, 1885 and onwards) on the minute structure of the nervous system has led to great alteration of doctrine in neural physi- ology. It had been held that the branches of the nerve cells, that is to say, the fine nerve fibres — since all nerve fibres are nerve cell branches, and all nerve cell branches are nerve fibres — which form a close felt-work in the nervous centres, there combined into a network actually con- tinuous throughout. This continuum was held to render possible conduction in all directions throughout the grey matter of the whole nervous system. The fact that conduction occurred preponderantly in certain directions was explained by appeal to a hypothetical resistance to conduction which, for reasons unascertained, lay less in some directions than in others. The intricate felt-work has by Golgi been ascertained to be a mere interlacement, not an actual anastomosis network; the branches springing from the various cells remain lifelong unattached and unjoined to any other than their own individual cell. Each neuron or nerve cell is a morphologically distinct and discrete unit connected functionally but not structurally with its neigh- bours, and leading its own life independently of the destiny of its neighbours. Among the properties of the neuron is con- ductivity in all directions. But when neurons are linked together it is found that nerve impulses will only pass from neuron A to neuron B, and not from neuron B to neuron A; that is, the transmission of the excited state or nervous impulse, although possible in each neuron both up and down its own cell branches, is possible from one nerve cell to another in one direction only. That direction is the direction in which the nerve impulses flow under the conditions of natural life. The synapse, therefore, as the place of meeting of one neuron with the next is called, is said to valve the nerve circuits. This determinate sense of the spread is called the law of forward direction. The synapse appears to be a weak spot in the chain of conduction, or rather to be a place which breaks down with comparative ease under stress, e.g. under effect of poisons. The axons of the motor neurons are, inasmuch as they are nerve fibres in nerve trunks, easily accessible to artificial stimuli. It can be demonstrated that they are practically indefatigable — repeatedly stimulated by electrical currents, even through many hours, they, unlike muscle, continue to respond with unimpaired reaction. . ^et wnen the muscular contraction is taken as index of the response of the nerve, it is found that unmis- takable signs of fatigue appear even very soon after commence- ment of the excitation of the nerve, and the muscle ceases to give any contraction in response to stimuli applied indirectly to it through its nerve. But the muscle will, when excited directly, e.g. by direct application of electric currents, contract vigorously after all response on its part to the stimuli (nerve impulses) applied to it indirectly through its nerve has failed. The inference is that the "fatigue substances" generated in .the muscle fibres in the course of their prolonged contraction injure and paralyse the motor end plates, which are places of synapsis between nerve cell and muscle cell, even earlier than they harm the contractility of the muscle fibres themselves. The alkaloid • curarin causes motor paralysis by attacking in a selective way this junction of motor nerve cell and striped muscular fibre. Non-myelinate nerve fibres are as resistant to fatigue as are the myelinate. The neuron is described as having a cell body or perikaryon from which the cell branches — dendrites and axon — extend^ and it is this perikaryon which, as its name implies, contains the nucleus. It forms the trophic centre of the cell, just as the nucleus-containing part of every cell is the trophic centre of the whole cell. Any part of the cell cut off from the nucleus-containing part dies down: this is as true of nerve cells as of amoeba, and in regard to the neuron it constitutes what is known as the Wallerian degeneration. On the other hand, in some neurons, after severance of the axon from the rest of the cell (spinal motor cell), the whole nerve cell as well as the severed axon degenerates, and may eventu- ally die and be removed. In the severed axon the degenera- tion is first evident in a breaking down of the naked nerve filaments of the motor end plate. A little later the breaking down of the whole axon, both axis cylinder and myelin sheath alike, seems to occur simultaneously throughout its entire length distal to the place of severance. The complex fat of the myelin becomes altered chemically, while the other com- ponents of the sheath break down. This death of the sheath as well as of the axis cylinder shows that it, like the axis cylinder, is a part of the nerve cell itself. In addition to the trophic influence exerted by each part of the neuron on its other parts, notably by the perikaryon on the cell branches, one neuron also in many instances in- fluences the nutrition of other neurons. When, for instance, the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina are severed by section of the optic nerve, and thus their influence upon the nerve cells of the visual cerebral centres is set aside, the nerve cells of those centres undergo secondary atrophy (Gadden's atrophy). They dwindle in size; they do not, however, die. Similarly, when the axons of the motor spinal cells are by severance of the nerve trunk of a muscle broken through, the muscle cells undergo " degeneration " — dwindle, become fatty, and alter almost beyond recognition. This trophic influence which one neuron exerts upon others, or upon the cells of an extrinsic tissue, such as muscle, is exerted in that direction which is the one normally taken by the T°a!c^ T * . „ . Activity of natural nerve impulses. It seems, especially in ^eurong the case of the nexus between certain neurons, that the influence, loss of which endangers nutrition, is associ- ated with the occurrence of something more than merely the nervous impulses awakened from time to time in the leading nerve cell. The wave of change (nervous impulse) induced in a neuron by advent of a stimulus is after all only a sudden augmentation of an activity continuous within the neuron — a transient accentuation of one (the disintegrative) phase of the metaboh'sm inherent in and inseparable from its life. The nervous impulse is, so to say, the sudden evanescent glow of an ember continuously black-hot. A continuous lesser " change " or stream of changes sets through the neuron, and is distributed by it to other neurons in the same direction and by the same synapses as are its nerve impulses. This gentle continuous activity of the neuron is called its tonus. In tracing the tonus of neurons to a source, one is always led link by link against the current of nerve force — so to say, " up stream " — to the first beginnings of the chain of neurons in the sensifacient surfaces of the body. From these, as in the eye, ear, and other sense organs, tonus is constantly initiated. Hence, when cut off from these sources, the nutrition of the neurons of various central mechanisms suffers. Thus the tonus of the motor neurons of the spinal cord is much lessened by rupture of the great afferent root cells which normally play upon them. A prominent and practically important illustration of neural tonus is given by the skeletal muscles. These muscles exhibit a certain constant condition of slight contraction, which dis- appears on severance of the nerve that innervates the muscle. It is a muscular tonus of central source consequent on the continual glow of excitement in the spinal motor neuron, whose outgoing end plays upon the muscle cells, whose ingoing MUSCLE AND NERVE 47 end is played upon by other neurons — spinal, cerebral and cerebellar. It is with the neural element of muscle tonus that tendon pheno- mena are intimately associated. The earliest-studied of these, the " knee-jerk," may serve as example of the class. It is a brief ex- tension of the limb at the knee-joint, due to a simple contraction of the extensor muscle, elicited by a tap or other short mechanical stimulus applied to the muscle fibres through the tendon of the muscle. The jerk is obtainable only from muscle fibres possessed of neural tonus. If the sensory nerves of the extensor muscle be severed, the "jerk " is lost. The brevity of the interval between the tap on the knee and the beginning of the resultant contraction of the muscle seems such as to exclude the possibility of reflex development. A little experience in observations on the knee-jerk imparts a notion of the average strength of the " jerk." Wide departures from the normal standard are met with and are sympto- matic of certain nervous conditions. Stretching of the muscles antagonistic to the extensors — namely, of the flexor muscles — reduces the jerk by inhibiting the extensor spinal nerve cells through the nervous impulses generated by the tense flexor muscles. Hence a favourable posture of the limb for eliciting the jerk is one ensuring relaxation of the hamstring muscles, as when the leg has been crossed upon the other. In sleep the jerk is diminished, in deep sleep quite abolished. Extreme bodily fatigue diminishes it. Con- versely, a cold bath increases it. The turning of attention towards the knee interferes with the jerk; hence the device of directing the person to perform vigorously some movement, which does not involve the muscles ot the lower limb, at the moment when the light blow is dealt upon the tendon. A slight degree of contraction of muscle seems the substratum of all attention. The direction of attention to the performance of some movement by the arm ensures that looseness and freedom from tension in the thigh muscles which is essential for the provocation of the jerk. The motor cells of the extensor muscles, when preoccupied by cerebral influence, appear refractory. T. Ziehen has noted exaltation of the jerk to follow extirpation of a cortical centre. Although the cell body or perikaryon of the neuron, with its contained nucleus, is essential for the maintenance of the life of the cell branches, it has become recognized Conduction .!_,•,• • , ,. f t, la Neurons. ^"a*- t"e actua' process and function of con- duction " in many neurons can, and does, go on without the cell body being directly concerned in the conduction. S. Exner first showed, many years ago, that the nerve impulse travels through the spinal ganglion at the same speed as along the other parts of the nerve trunk — that is, that it suffers no delay in transit through the perikarya of the afferent root- neurons. Bethe has succeeded in isolating their perikarya from certain of the afferent neurons of the antennule of Carcinus. The conduction through the amputated cell branches continues unimpaired for many hours. This indicates that the conjunction between the conducting substance of the dendrons and that of the axon can be effected without the intermediation of the cell body. But the proper nutntion of the conducting substance is indissolubly dependent on the cell branches being in continuity with the cell body and nucleus it contains. Evidence illustrating this nexus is found in the visible changes produced in the perikaryon by prolonged activity induced and maintained in the conducting branches of the cell. As a result the fatigued cells appear shrunken, and their reaction to staining reagents alters, thus showing chemical alteration. Most marked is the decrease in the volume of the nucleus, amounting even to 44% of the initial volume. In the myelinated cell branches of the neuron, that is, in the ordinary nerve fibres, no visible change has ever been demonstrated as the result of any normal activity, however great — a striking contrast to the observations obtained on the perikarya. The chemical changes that accompany activity in the nerve fibre must be very small, for the production of COj is barely measurable, and no production of heat is observable as the result of the most forced tetanic activity. The nerve cells of the higher vertebrata, unlike their blood cells, their connective tissue cells, and even their muscle cells, Growth la early, and indeed in embryonic life, lose power of Nervous multiplication. The number of them formed is System. definitely closed at an early period of the individual life. Although, unlike so many other cells, thus early sterile for reproduction of their kind, they retain for longer than most cells a high power of individual growth. They continue to grow, and to thrust out new branches and to lengthen existing branches, for many years far into adult life. They similarly possess power to repair and to regenerate their cell branches where these are injured or destroyed by trauma or disease. This is the explana- tion of the repair of nerve trunks that have been severed, with consequent degeneration of the peripheral nerve fibres. As a rule, a longer time is required to restore the motor than the sensory functions of a nerve trunk. Whether examined by functional or by structural features, the conducting paths of the nervous system, traced from beginning to end, never terminate in the centres of that system, but pass through them. All ultimately emerge as efferent channels. Every efferent channel, after entrance in the central nervous system, sub- divides; of its subdivisions some pass to efferent channels soon, others pass further and further within the cord and brain before they finally reach channels of outlet. All the longest routes thus formed traverse late in their course the cortex of the cerebral hemisphere. It is this relatively huge development of cortex cerebri which is the pre-eminent structural character of man. This means that the number of " longest routes " in man is, as compared with lower animals, disproportionately great. In the lower animal forms there is no such nervous structure at all as the cortex cerebri. In the frog, lizard, and even bird, it is thin and poorly developed. In the marsupials it is more evident, and its excitation by electric currents evokes movements in the musculature of the crossed side of the body. Larger and thicker in the rabbit, when excited it gives rise in that animal to movements of the eyes and of the fore-limbs and neck; but it is only in much higher types, such as the dog, that the cortex yields, under experimental excitation, definitely localized foci, whence can be evoked movements of the fore-limb, hind-limb, neck, eyes, ears and fate. In the monkey the proportions it assumes are still greater, and the number of foci, for distinct movements of this and that member, indeed for the individual joints of each limb, are much more numerous, and together occupy a more extensive surface, though relatively to the total surface of the brain a smaller one. Experiment shows that in the manlike (anthropoid) apes the differentiation of the foci or "centres " of movement in the motor field of the cortex is even more minute. In them areas are found whence stimuli excite movements of this or that finger alone, of the upper lip without the lower, of the tip only of the tongue, or of one upper eyelid by itself. The movement evoked from a point of cortex is not always the same; its character is determined by movements evoked from neighbouring points of cortex immediately antecedently. Thus a point A will, when excited soon subsequent to point B, which latter yields pro- trusion of lips, itself yield lip-protrusion, whereas if excited after C, which yields lip-retraction, it will itself yield lip-retrac- tion. The movements obtained by point-to-point excitation of the cortex are often evidently imperfect as compared with natural movements — that is, are only portions of complete normal movements. Thus among the tongue movements evoked by stigmatic stimulation of the cortex undeviated protrusion or retraction of the organ is not found. Again, from different points of the cortex the assumption of the requisite positions of the tongue, lips, cheeks, palate and epiglottis, as components in the act of sucking, can be pro- voked singly. Rarely can the whole action be provoked, and then only gradually, by prolonged and strong excitation of one of the requisite points, e.g. that for the tongue, with which the other points are functionally connected. Again, no single point in the cortex evokes the act of ocular converg- ence and fixation. All this means that the execution of natural movements employs simultaneous co-operative activity of a number of points in the motor fields on both sides of the brain together. The accompanying simple figure indicates better than any verbal description the topography of the main groups of foci in the motor field of a manlike ape (chimpanzee). It will be MUSCLE AND NERVE noted from it that there is no direct relation between the extent of a cortical area and the mass of muscles which it controls. The mass of muscles in the trunk is greater than in the leg, and in the leg is greater than in the arm, and in the arm is many times greater than in the face and head; yet for the last the cortical area is the most extensive of all, and for the first-named is the least extensive of all. The motor field of the cortex is, taken altogether, relatively to the size of the lower parts of the brain, larger in the anthropoid than in the inferior monkey brains. But in the anthropoid Anus jat the supporting cells expand between the nerve cells and tend to isolate the latter one from the other. Certain it is that in the course of the waking day a great number of stimuli play on the sense organs, and through these produce disintegra- tion of the living molecules of the central nervous system. Hence during the day the assimilatory processes of these cells are overbalanced by their wear and tear, and the end-result is that the cell attains an atomic condition less favourable to further disintegration than to reintegration. That phase of cell life which we are accustomed to call " active " is accompanied always by disintegration. When in the cell the assimilative processes exceed dissimilative, the external manifestations of energy are liable to cease or diminish. Sleep is not exhaustion of the neuron in the sense that prolonged activity has reduced its excitability to zero. The nerve cell just prior to sleep is still well capable of response to stimuli, although perhaps the thres- hold-value of the stimulus has become rather high, whereas after entrance upon sleep and continuance of sleep for several hours, and more, when all spur to the dissimilation process has been long withheld, the threshold-value of the sensory stimulus becomes enormously higher than before. The exciting cause of sleep is therefore no complete exhaustion of the available material of the cells, nor is it entirely any paralysing of them by their excreta. It is more probably abeyance of external function during a periodic internal assimilatory phase. Two processes conjoin to initiate the assimilatory phase. There is close interconnexion between the two aspects of the double activity that in physiological theory constitute the chemical life of protoplasm, between dissimilation and assimilation. Hering has long insisted on a self-regulative adjustment of the cell metabolism, so that action involves reaction, increased catabolism necessitates after-increase of anabolism. The long-continued incitement to catabolism of the waking day thus of itself predisposes the nerve cells towards rebound into the opposite phase; the increased cata- bolism due to the day's stimuli induces increase of anabolism, and though recuperation goes on to a large extent during the day itself, the recuperative process is slower than, and lags behind, the dis- integrative. Hence there occurs a cumulative effect, progressively increasing from the opening till the closing hours. The second factor inducing tiie assimilative change is the withdrawal of the nervous system from sensual stimulation. The eyes are closed, the maintenance.of posture by active contraction is replaced by the recumbent pose which can be maintained by static action and the mere mechanical consistence of the body, the ears are screened from noise in the quiet chamber, the skin from localized pressure by a soft, yielding couch. The effect of thus reducing the excitant action of the environment is to give consciousness over more to mere revivals by memory, and gradually consciousness lapses. A remarkable case is well authenticated, where, owing to disease, a young man had lost the use of all the senses save of one eye and of one ear. If these last channels were sealed, in two or three minutes' time he invariably fell asleep. If natural sleep is the expression of a phase of decreased excit- ability due to the setting in of a tide of anabolism in the cells of the nervous system, what is the action of narcotics ? They lower the MUSCOVITE external activities of the cells, but do they not at the same time lower the internal, reparative, assimilative activity of the cell that in natural sleep goes vigorously forward preparing the system for the next day's drain on energy? In most cases they seem to Narcotics. lower both the internal and the external activity of the nerve cells, to lessen the cell's entire metabolism, to reduce the speed of its whole chemical movement and life. Hence it is not surprising that often the refreshment, the recuperation, obtained from and felt after sleep induced by a drug amounts to nothing, or to worse than nothing. But very often refreshment is undoubtedly obtained from such narcotic sleep. It may be supposed that in the latter case the effect of the drug has been to ensure occurrence of that second predisposing factor mentioned above, of that withdrawal of sense impulses from the nerve centres that serves to usher in the state of sleep. In certain conditions it may be well worth while by means of narcotic drugs to close the portals of the senses for the sake of thus obtaining stillness in the chambers of the mind; their enforced quietude may induce a period in which natural rest and repair continue long after the initial unnatural arrest of vitality due to the drug itself has passed away. Hypnotism. — The physiology of this group of " states " is, as regards the real understanding of their production, eminently vague (see also HYPNOTISM). The conditions which tend to in- duce them contain generally, as one element, constrained visual attention prolonged beyond ordinary duration. Symptoms attendant on the hypnotic state are closure of tht e eyelids by the hypnotizer without subsequent attempt to open them by the hypnotized subject; the pupils, instead of being constricted, as for near vision, dilate, and there sets in a condition superficially resembling sleep. But in natural sleep the action of all parts of the nervous system is subdued, whereas in the hypnotic the reactions of the lower, and some even of the higher, parts are exalted. Moreover, the reactions seem to follow the sense impressions with such fatality, that, as an inference, absence of will-power to control them or suppress them is suggested. This reflex activity with " paralysis of will " is characteristic of the somnambulistic state. The threshold-value of the stimuli adequate for the various senses may be extraordinarily lowered. Print of microscopic size may be read; a watch ticking in another room can be heard. Judgment of weight and texture of surface is exalted; thus a card can in a dark room be felt and then re-selected from the re-shuffled pack. Akin to this condition is that in which the power of maintaining muscular effort is in- creased; the individual may lie stiff with merely head and feet supported on two chairs; the limbs can be held outstretched for hours at a time. This is the cataleptic state, the phase of hypno- tism which the phenomena of so-called " animal hypnotism " resemble most. A frog or fowl or guinea-pig held in some unnatural pose, and retained so forcibly for a time, becomes " set " in that pose, or rather in a posture of partial recovery of the normal posture. In this state it remains motionless for various periods. This condition is more than usually readily induced when the cerebral hemispheres have been removed. The decerebrate monkey exhibits " cataleptoid " reflexes. Father A. Kircher's experimentum mirabile with the fowl and the chalk line succeeds best with the decerebrate hen. The ^attitude may be described as due to prolonged, not very intense, .discharge from reflex centres that regulate posture and are iprobably intimately connected with the cerebellum. A sudden iintense sense stimulus usually suffices to end this tonic discharge. It completes the movement that has already set in but had been .checked, as it were, half-way, though tonically maintained. Coincidently with the persistence of the tonic contraction, the higher and volitional centres seem to lie under a spell of inhibition; their action, which would complete or cut short the posture-spasm, rests in abeyance. Suspension of cerebral influence exists even more markedly, of course, when the .cerebral hemispheres have been ablated. But a potent — according to some, the most potent — factor ;in hypnotism, namely, suggestion, is unrepresented in the production of so-called animal hypnotism. We know that one idea suggests another, and that volitional movements are the outcome of ideation. If we assume that there is a material process at the basis of ideation, we may take the analogy of the concomitance between a spinal reflex movement and a skin sensation. The physical " touch " that initiates the psychical " touch " initiates, through the very same nerve channels, a reflex movement responsive to the physical "• touch," just as the psychical " touch " may be considered also a response to the same physical event. But in the decapitated animal we have good arguments for belief that we get the reflex movement alone as response; the psychical touch drops out. Could we assume that there is in the adult man reflex machinery which is of higher order than the merely spinal, which employs much more complex motor mechanisms than1 they, and is connected with a much wider range of sense organs; and could we assume that- this reflex machinery, although usually associated in its action with memorial and volitional processes, may in certain circumstances be sundered from these latter and unattendant on them — may in fact continue in work when the higher processes are at a standstill — then we might imagine a condition resembling that of the somnambulistic and cataleptic states of hypnotism. Such assumptions are not wholly unjustified. Actions of great complexity and delicacy of adjustment are daily executed by each of us without what is ordinarily understood as volition, and without more than a mere shred of memory attached thereto. To take one's watch from the pocket and look at it when from a familiar clock-tower a familiar bell strikes a familiar hour, is an instance of a habitual action initiated by a sense perception outside attentive consciousness. We may suddenly remember dimly afterwards that we have done so, and we quite fail to recall the difference between the watch time and the clock time. In many instances hypnotism seems to establish quickly reactions similar to such as usually result only from long and closely attentive practice. The sleeping mother rests undisturbed by the various noises of the house and street, but wakes at a slight murmur from her child. The ship's engineer, engaged in conversation with some visitor to the engine- room, talks apparently undisturbed by all the multifold noise and rattle of the machinery, but let the noise alter in some item which, though unnoticeable to the visitor, betokens importance to the trained ear, and his passive attention is in a moment caught. The warders at an asylum have been hypnotized to sleep by the bedside of dangerous patients, and " suggested " to awake the instant the patients attempt to get out of bed, sounds which had no import for them being inhibited by suggestion. Warders in this way worked all day and performed night duty also for months without showing fatigue. This is akin to the " repetition " which, read by the schoolboy last thing overnight, is on waking " known by heart." Most of us can wake somewhere about a desired although unusually early hour, if overnight we desire much to do so. Two theories of a physiological nature have been proposed to account for the separation of the complex reactions of these conditions of hypnotism from volition and from memory. R. P. H. Heidenhain's view is that the cortical centres of the hemisphere are inhibited by peculiar conditions attaching to the initiatory sense stimuli. W. T. Preyer's view is that the essential condition for initiation is fatigue of the will-power under a prolonged effort of undivided attention. Hypnotic somnambulism and hypnotic catalepsy are not {he only or the most profound changes of nervous condition that hypnosis can induce. The physiological derangement which is the basis of the abeyance of volition may, if hypnotism be profound, pass into more widespread derangement, exhibiting itself as the hypnotic lethargy. This is associated not only with paralysis of will but with profound anaesthesia. Proposals have been made to employ hypnotism as a method of producing anaesthesia for surgical purposes, but there are two grave objections to such employment. In order to produce a sufficient degree of hypnotic lethargy the subject must be made extremely susceptible, and this can only be done by repeated hypnotization. It is necessary to hypnotize patients every day for several weeks before they can be got into a degree of stupor sufficient to allow of the safe execution of a surgical operation. But the state itself, when reached, is at least as dangerous to life as is that produced by inhalation of ether, and it is more difficult to recover from. Moreover, by the processes the subject has gone through he has had those physiological activities upon which his volitional power depends excessively deranged, and not improbably permanently enfeebled. (C. S. S.) MUSCOVITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica group (see MICA). It is also known as potash-mica, being a potassium, hydrogen and'aluminium orthosilicate, MUSCULAR SYSTEM As the common white mica obtainable in thin, transparent cleavage sheets of large size it was formerly used in Russia for window panes and known as " Muscovy glass "; hence the name muscovite, proposed by J. D. Dana in 1850. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system; distinctly developed crystals, however, are rare and have the form of rough six-sided prisms or plates: thin scales without definite crystal outlines are more common. The most prominent feature is the perfect cleavage parallel to t^e basal plane (c in the figure), on which the lustre is pearly in character. jit "7 The hardness is 2-2 1, and the spec, grav. 2-8-2-9. The plane of the optic axes is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry and the acute bisectrix nearly normal to the cleavage; the optic axial angle is 60-70°, and double refraction is strong and negative in sign. Muscovite frequently occurs as fine scaly to almost compact aggregates, especially when, as is often the case, it has resulted by the alteration of some other mineral, such as felspar, topaz, cyanite, &c.j several varieties depending on differences in structure have been distinguished. Fine scaly varieties are damourite, margarodite (from Gr. jia/xyapt-njj, a pearl), gilber- tite, sericite (from or /3) and the double sharp X (sometimes written ^, ^ or :$ ) are Conventions of a much later date, called into existence by the demands of modern music, while the sign of natural (t|) is the outcome of the original B quadra- tion or square B (3. The systems known as Tonic Sol Fa and the Galin-Paris- Cheve methods do not belong to the subject of notation, as they are ingenious mechanical substitutes for the experimentally devel- oped systems analysed above. The basis of these substitutes is the reference of all notes to key relationship and not to pitch. AUTHORITIES. — E. David and M. Lussy, Hisioire de la notation musicale (Paris, 1882); H. Riemann, Notenschrift und Notendruck (1896) ; C. F. Abdy Williams, The Story of Notation (1903) ; Robert Eitner, Bibliographic der musik. Sammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahr- hunderts (Berlin, 1877) ; Friedrich Chrysander, " Abriss einer Geschichte des Musikdrucks vom I5--I9. Jahrh.," Allgemeine musik- alische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1879, Nos. n-i6); W. H. James Weale, A Descriptive Catalogue of Rare Manuscripts and Printed Works, chiefly Liturgical (Historical Music Loan Exhibition, Albert Hall, London, January-October, 1885); (London, 1886); W. Barclay Squire, " Notes on Early Music Printing," in the Zeitschrift biblio- graphica, p. IX. S. 99-122 (London, 1896); Grove's Diet, of Music. MUSIC HALLS. The "variety theatre" or "music-hall" of to-day developed out of the " saloon theatres " which existed in London about 1830-1840; they owed their form and existence to the restrictive action of the " patent " theatres at that time. These theatres had the exclusive right of representing what was broadly called the "legitimate drama," which ranged from Shakespeare to Monk Lewis, and from Sheridan and Goldsmith to Kotzebue and Alderman Birch of Cornhill, citizen and poet, and the founder of the turtle-soup trade. The patent houses defended their rights when they were attacked by the " minor " and " saloon " theatres, but they often acted in the spirit of the dog in the manger. While they pursued up to fine and even imprisonment the poachers on their dramatic preserves, they too often neglected the " legitimate drama " for the supposed meretricious attractions offered by their illegitimate competitors. The British theatre gravitated naturally to the inn or tavern. The tavern was the source of life and heat, and warmed all social gatherings. The inn galleries offered rather rough stages, before the Shakespeare and Alleyn playhouses were built. The inn yards were often made as comfortable as possible for the " groundlings " by layers of straw, but the tavern character of the auditorium was never concealed. Excisable liquor was always obtainable, and the superior members of the audience, who chose to pay for seats at the side of the stage or platform (like the " avant-scene " boxes at a Parisian theatre), were allowed to smoke Raleigh's Virginian weed, then a novel luxury. This was, of course, the first germ of a " smoking- theatre." While the drama progressed as a recognized public entertain- ment in England, and was provided with its own buildings in the town, or certain booths at the fairs, the Crown exercised its patronage in favour of certain individuals, giving them power to set up playhouses at any time in any parts of London and Westminster. The first and most important grant was made by Charles II. to his " trusty and well-beloved " Thomas Killigrew " and Sir William Davenant." This was a personal grant, not connected with any particular sites or buildings, and is known in theatrical history as the " Killigrew and Davenant patent." Killigrew was the author of several unsuccessful plays, and Sir William Davenant, said to be an illegitimate chUd of William Shakespeare, was a stage manager of great daring and genius. Charles II. had strong theatrical leanings, and had helped to arrange the court ballets at Versailles for Louis XIV. The Killigrew and Davenant patent in course of time descended, after a fashion, to the Theatres Royal, Covent Garden and Drury Lane, and was and still is the chief legal authority governing these theatres. The " minor " and outlying playhouses were carried on under the Music and Dancing Act of George II., and the annual licences were granted by the local magistrates. The theatre proper having emancipated itself from the inn or tavern, it was now the turn of the inn or tavern to develop into an independent place of amusement, and to lay the foundation of that enormous middle-class and lower middle-class institution of interest which we agree to term the music hall. It rose from the most modest, humble and obscure beginning — from the public-house bar-parlour, and its weekly " sing-songs," chiefly supported by voluntary talent from the "harmonic meetings" of the " long-room " upstairs, generally used as a Foresters' or Masonic club-room, where one or two professional singers were engaged and a regular chairman was appointed, to the " assem- bly-room " entertainments at certain hotels, where private balls and school festivals formed part of an irregular series. The district " tea-garden," which was then an agreeable feature of suburban life — the suburbs being next door to the city and the country next door to the suburbs — was the first to show dramatic 88 MUSIC HALLS ambition, and to erect in some portion of its limited but leafy grounds a lath-and-plaster stage large enough for about eight people to move upon without incurring the danger of falling off into the adjoining fish pond and fountain. A few classical statues in plaster, always slightly mutilated, gave an educational tone to the place, and with a few coloured oil-lamps hung amongst the bushes the proprietor felt he had gone as near the " Royal Vauxhall Gardens '' as possible for the small charge of a sixpenny refreshment ticket. There were degrees of quality, of course, amongst these places, which answered to the German beer- gardens, though with inferior music. The Beulah Spa at Norwood, the White Conduit House at Pentonville, the York- shire Stingo in the Marylebone Road, the Monster at Pimlico, the St Helena at Rotherhithe, the Globe at Mile End, the Red Cow at Dalston, the Highbury Barn at Highbury, the Manor House at Mare Street, Hackney, the Rosemary Branch at Hoxton, and other rus-in-urbe retreats, were up to the level of their time, if rarely beyond it. The suspended animation of the law — the one Georgian act, which was mainly passed to check the singing of Jacobite songs in the tap-rooms and tea-gardens of the little London of 1730, when the whole population of the United Kingdom was only about six millions — encouraged the growth eventually of a number of " saloon theatres " in various London districts, which were allowed under the head of "Music and Dancing" to go as far on the light dramatic road as the patent theatres thought proper to permit. The 25 Geo. II. c. 36, which in later days was still the only act under which the music halls of forty millions and more of people were licensed, was always liberally interpreted, as long as it kept clear of politics. The " saloon theatres," always being taverns or attached to taverns, created a public who liked to mix its dramatic amuse- ments with smoking and light refreshments. The principal " saloons " were the Emngham in the Whitechapel Road, the Bower in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, the Albert at Islington, the Britannia at Hoxton, the Grecian in the City Road, the Union in Shoreditch, the Stingo at Paddington and several others of less importance. All these places had good com- panies, especially in the winter, and many of' them nourished leading actors of exceptional merit. The dramas were chiefly rough adaptations from the contemporary French stage, occasionally flying as high as Alexandre Dumas the elder and Victor Hugo. Actors of real tragic power lived, worked and died in this confined area. Some went to America, and acquired fame and fortune; and among others, Frederick Robson, who was trained at the Grecian, first when it was the leading saloon theatre and afterwards when it became the leading music hall (a distinction with little difference), fought his way to the front after the abolition of the " patent rights " and was accepted as the greatest tragi-comic actor of his time. The Grecian saloon theatre, better known perhaps, with its pleasure garden or yard, as the Eagle Tavern, City Road, which formed the material of one of Charles Dickens's Sketches by Boz, was a place managed with much taste, enterprise and discretion by its pro- prietor, Mr Rouse. It was the " saloon " where the one and only attempt, with limited means, was ever made to import almost all the original repertory of the Opera Comique in Paris, with the result that many musical works were presented to a sixpenny audience that had never been heard before nor since in England. Auber, Herold, Adolphe Adam, Boieldieu, Gretry, Donizetti, Bellini, Rossini and a host of others gave some sort of advanced musical education, through the Grecian, to a rather depressing part of London, long before board schools were established. The saloon theatres rarely offended the patent houses, and when they did the law was soon put in motion to show that Shake- speare could not be represented with impunity. The Union Saloon in Shoreditch, then under the direction of Mr Samuel Lane, who afterwards, with his wife, Mrs Sara Lane, at the Britannia Saloon, became the leading local theatrical manager of his day, was tempted in 1834 to give a performance of Othello. It was " raided " by the then rather " new police," and all the actors, servants, audience, directors and musicians were taken into custody and marched off to Worship Street police station, confined for the remainder of the night, and fined and warned in the morning. The same and only law still exists for those who are helping to keep a " disorderly house," but there are no holders of exclusive dramatic patent rights to set it in motion. The abolition of this privileged monopoly was effected about this time by a combination of distinguished literary men and drama- tists, who were convinced, from observation and experience, that the patent theatres had failed to nurse the higher drama, while interfering with the beneficial freedom of public amusements. The effect of Covent Garden and Drury Lane on the art of acting had resulted chiefly in limiting the market for theatrical employment, with a consequent all-round reduction of salaries. They kept the Lyceum Theatre (or English Opera House) for years in the position of a music hall, giving sometimes two performances a night, like a " gaff " in the New Cut or White- chapel. They had not destroyed the " star " system, and Edmund Kean and the boy Betty — the " Infant Roscius " — were able to command sensational rewards. In the end Charles Dickens, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd and others got the patents abolished, and the first step towards free trade in the drama was secured. The effect of this change was to draw attention to the " saloon theatres," where during the performances smoking, drinking, and even eating were allowed hi the auditorium. An act was soon passed, known as the Theatres Act (1843), appointing a censor of stage-plays, and placing the London theatres under the control of a Crown officer, changing with ministries. This was the lord chamberlain for the time being. The lord chamber- lain of this period drew a hard-and-fast line between theatres under his control, where no smoking and drinking were allowed " in front," and theatres or halls where the old habits and customs of the audience were not to be interfered with. These latter were to go under the jurisdiction of the local magistrates, or other licensing authorities, under the 25 Geo. II. c. 36 — the Music and Dancing Act — and so far a divorce was decreed between the taverns and the playhouses. The lord chamberlain eventually made certain concessions. Refreshment bars were allowed at the lord chamberlain's theatres in unobstrusive positions, victualled under a special act of William IV., and private smoking-rooms were allowed at most theatres on appli- cation. All this implied that stage plays were to be kept free from open smoking and drinking, and miscellaneous entertain- ments were to enjoy their old social freedom. The position was accepted by those " saloon theatres " which were not tempted to become lord chamberlain houses, and the others, with many additions, started the first music halls. Amongst the first of these halls, and certainly the very first as far as intelligent management was concerned, was the Can- terbury in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, which was next door to the old Bower Saloon, then transformed into a " minor theatre." The Canterbury sprang from the usual tavern germ, its creator being Mr Charles Morton, who honourably earned the name of the " doyen of the music halls." It justified its title by cultivating the best class of music, and exposed the prejudice and unfairness of Planche's sarcasm in a Haymarket burlesque — " most music hall — most melancholy." Mr Charles Morton added pictorial art to his other attractions, and obtained the support of Punch, which stamped the Canterbury as the " Royal Academy over the water." At this time by a mere accident Gounod's great opera of Faust, through defective inter- national registration, fell into the public domain in England and became common property. The Canterbury, not daring to present it with scenery, costumes and action, for fear of the Stage-play Act, gave what was called " An Operatic Selection," the singers standing in plain dresses in a row, like pupils at a school examination or a chorus in an oratorio at Exeter Hall. The music was well rendered by a thoroughly competent com- pany, night after night, for a long period, so that by the time the opera attracted the tardy attention of the two principal opera managers at Her Majesty's Theatre in the Haymarket and Covent Garden Theatre, the tunes most popular were being' MUSIC HALLS 89 whistled by the " man in the street," the " boy in the gutter " and the tradesman waiting at the door for orders. With the Canterbury Hall, and its brother the Oxford in Oxford Street — a converted inn and coaching yard — built and managed on the same lines by Mr Charles Morton, the music halls were well started. They had imitators in every direction — some large, some small, and some with architectural pretensions, but all anxious to attract the public by cheap prices and physical comforts not attainable at any of the regular theatres. With the growth and improvement of these " Halls," the few old cellar " singing-rooms " gradually disappeared. Evans's in Covent Garden was the last to go. Rhodes's, or the Cyder Cellars in Maiden Lane, at the back of the Adelphi Theatre; the Coal Hole, in the Strand, which now forms the site of Terry's Theatre; the Doctor Johnson, in Fleet Street (oddly enough, within the precincts of the City of London) disappeared one by one, and with them the compound material for Thackeray's picture of " The Cave of Harmony." This " Cave," like Dickens's " Old Curiosity Shop," was drawn from the features of many places. To do the " cellars " a little justice, they represented the manners of a past time — heavy suppers and heavy drinks, and the freedom of their songs and recitations was partly due to the fact that the audience and the actors were always composed of men. Thackeray clung to Evans's to the last. It was his nightly " chapel of ease " to the adjoining Garrick Club. In its old age it became decent, and ladies were admitted to a private gallery, behind screens and a convent grille. Before its death, and its revival in another form as a sporting club, it admitted ladies both on and off the stage, and became an ordinary music hall. The rise and progress of the London music halls naturally excited a good deal of attention and jealousy on the part of the regular theatres, and this was increased when the first Great Variety Theatre was opened in Leicester Square. The building was the finest example of Moorish architec- ture on a large scale ever erected in England. It was burnt down in the 'eighties, and the present theatre was built in its place. Originally it was " The Panopticon," a palace of " recreative science," started under the most distinguished direction on the old polytechnic institution lines, and with ample capital. It was a commercial failure, and after being tried as an " American Circus," it was turned into a great variety theatre, the greatest of its kind in Europe, under the name of the Alhambra Palace. Its founder was Mr E.T. Smith, the energetic theatrical manager, and its developer was Mr Frederick Strange, who came full of spirit and money from the Crystal Palace. He produced in 1865 an ambitious ballet — the Dagger Ballet from Auber's Enfant prodigue, which had been seen at Drury Lane Theatre in 1851, translated as " Azae'l." The Alhambra was prosecuted in the superior courts for infringing the Stage-play Act — the 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68. The case is in the law reports — Wigan v. Strange; the ostensible plaintiffs being the well-known actors and managers Horace Wigan and Benjamin Webster, supported by J. B. Buckstone, and many other theatrical managers. A long trial before eminent judges, with eminent counsel on both sides, produced a decision which was not very satisfactory, and far from final. It held that, as far as the entertainment went, according to the evidence tendered, it was not a ballet representing any distinct story or coherent action, but it might have been a " divertissement " — a term suggested in the course of the trial. A short time after this a pantomime scene was pro- duced at the same theatre, called Where's the Police? which had a clown, a pantaloon, a columbine and a harlequin, with other familiar characters, a mob, a street and even the traditional red-hot poker. This inspired proceedings by the same plaintiffs before a police magistrate at Marlborough Street, who inflicted the full penalties — £20 a performance for 12 performances, and costs. An appeal was made to the West- minster quarter sessions, supported by Serjeant Ballantine and opposed by Mr Hardinge Giffard (afterwards Lord Chan- cellor Halsbury), and the conviction was confirmed. Being heard at quarter sessions, there is no record in the law reports. These and other prosecutions suggested the institution of a parliamentary inquiry, and a House of Commons select committee was appointed in 1866, at the instigation of the music halls and variety theatres. The committee devoted much time to the inquiry, and examined many witnesses — amongst the rest Lord Sydney, the lord chamberlain, who had no personal objection to undertake the control of these comparatively young places of amusement and recreation. Much of the evidence was directed against the Stage-play Act, as the difficulty appeared to be to define what was not a stage play. Lord Denman, Mr Justice Byles, and other eminent judges seemed to think that any song, action or recitation that excited the emotions might be pinned as a stage-play, and that the old definition — " the representation of any action by a person (or persons) acting, and not in the form of narration " — could be supported in the then state of the law in any of the higher courts. The variety theatres on this occasion were encouraged by what had just occurred at the time in France. Napoleon III., acting under the advice of M. Miche! Chevalier, passed a decree known as La LibertS des IheStres, which fixed the status of the Parisian and other music halls. Operettas, ballets of action, ballets, vaudevilles, pantomimes and all light pieces were allowed, and the managers were no longer legally confined to songs and acrobatic performances. The report of the select committee of 1866, signed by the chairman, Mr (afterwards Viscount) Goschen, was in favour of granting the variety theatres and music halls the privileges they asked for, which were those enjoyed in France and other countries. Parliamentary interference and the introduction of several private bills in the House of Commons, which came to nothing, checked, if they did not altogether stop, the prosecutions. The variety theatres advanced in every direction in number and im- portance. Ballets grew in splendour and coherency. The lighting and ventilation, the comfort and decoration of the various " palaces " (as many of them were now called) improved, and the public, as usual, were the gainers. Population in- creased, and the six millions of 1730 became forty millions and more. The same and only act (25 Geo. II. c. 36), adequate or inadequate, still remained. London is defined as' the " administrative county of London," and its area — the zo-miles radius — is mapped out. The Metropolitan Board of Works retired or was discharged, and the London County Council was created and has taken its place. The London County Council, with extended power over structures and structural alterations, acquired the licensing of variety theatres and music halls from the local magistrates (the Middlesex, Surrey, Tower Hamlets and other magistrates) within the administrative county of London. The L. C. C. examine and enforce their powers. They have been advised that they can separate a music from a dancing licence if they like, and that when they grant the united licence the dancing means the dancing of paid performers on a stage, and not the dancing of the audience on a platform or floor, as at the short- lived but elegant Cremorne Gardens, or an old-time " Casino." They are also advised that they can withhold licences, unless the applicants agree not to apply for a drink licence to the local magistrates sitting in brewster sessions, who still retain their control over the liquor trade. Theatre licences are often with- held unless a similar promise is made — the drink authority in this case being the Excise, empowered by the Act of William IV. (5&6 Will. IV. c. 39, s. 7). The spread of so-called " sketches " — a kind of condensed drama or farce — in the variety theatres, and the action of the London County Council in trying to check the extension of refreshment licences to these establishments, with other grounds of discontent on the part of managers (individuals or " limited companies "), led to the appointment of a second select com- mittee of the House of Commons in 1892 and the production of another blue-book. The same ground was gone over, and the same objections were raised against a licensing authority 9o MUSK— MUSKEGON which is elected by public votes, only exists for three years before another election is due, and can give no guarantee for the continuity of its judgments. The consensus of opinion (as in 1866) was in favour of a state official, responsible to parliament — like the Home Office or the Board of Trade — the preference being given to the lord chamberlain and his staff, who know much about theatres and theatrical business. The chairman of the committee was the Hon. David Plunkett (after- wards Lord Rathmore), and the report in spirit was the same as the one of 1866. Three forms of licence were suggested: one for theatres proper, one for music halls, and one for concert rooms. Though the rise and progress of the music hall and variety theatre interest is one of the most extraordinary facts of the last half of the igth century, the business has little or no corporate organization, and there is nothing like a complete registration of the various properties throughout the United Kingdom. In London the " London Entertainments Pro- tection Association," which has the command of a weekly paper called the Music Hall and Theatre Review, looks after its interests. In London alone over five millions sterling of capital is said to be invested in these enterprises, employing 80,000 persons of all grades, and entertaining during the year about 25,000,000 people. The annual applications for music licences in London alone are over 300. (J. HD.) HUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. tiba\